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THE MAIN STAGES OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE BUKHARA
PEOPLE'S SOVIET REPUBLIC
Sulton Jurayev
Science Academy of Uzbekistan
Institute of State and Law,
PhD student
+998992757727
https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.15302870
Abstract.
The Bukhara People's Soviet Republic (BPSR) was a short-lived
but significant political entity that emerged in Central Asia following the collapse
of the Emirate of Bukhara in 1920. This thesis examines the main stages of the
BPSR’s development from its revolutionary formation through its governance
and legal transformations to its eventual integration into the Soviet Union.
Drawing on primary sources (including the 1921 BPSR Constitution) and
scholarly analyses, we chronologically outline the BPSR’s evolution: the
revolutionary overthrow of the emirate and establishment of a People’s
Republic, the formation of governmental institutions and initial reforms, the
adoption of a unique constitution permitting limited private property and
broadening political participation, the challenges of governance amid civil
conflict (notably the Basmachi revolt), and the republic’s transition into a Soviet
Socialist Republic leading to its voluntary dissolution in 1924.
Keywords:
Bukhara People’s Soviet Republic; Central Asia; Soviet
Revolution; Jadid Reformers; 1921 Constitution; Soviet Nationalities Policy;
Basmachi Revolt
Introduction.
The collapse of the Emirate of Bukhara in 1920 and the
subsequent establishment of the Bukhara People's Soviet Republic (BPSR)
marked a watershed in the history of Central Asia. For over two centuries, the
Emirate of Bukhara had existed as a traditional monarchical state, and since the
late 19th century it functioned as a semi-autonomous protectorate under the
Russian Empire. The revolutionary upheavals in Russia in 1917–1918
reverberated into Central Asia, inspiring local reformers and revolutionaries to
challenge the emir’s rule. By August 1920, with support from the Bolshevik Red
Army, the emirate was overthrown, paving the way for a new republican regime.
On 8 October 1920, the Bukhara People's Soviet Republic was formally
proclaimed under the leadership of Fayzulla Khojaev, a prominent Young
Bukharan revolutionary who became the head of the Council of People's Nazirs
(Ministers). This dramatic transition from an absolutist emirate to a self-
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declared Soviet republic encapsulated the broader collision of traditional
structures with revolutionary modernity in Central Asia.
The BPSR represented a unique and transitional model of governance in the
early Soviet period. It was characterized by what Bolshevik ideologues termed a
“revolutionary-democratic dictatorship of the proletariat and peasantry,”
essentially a coalition government of communists and progressive national
forces intended as a stepping-stone toward a fully socialist republic.
The significance of the BPSR’s establishment can also be seen in the context
of Soviet nationalities policy and the need to legitimize Bolshevik rule in
predominantly non-Russian, Islamic regions. Lenin’s regime, in its early years,
professed support for the self-determination of the East.
Methods.
This research employs a historical-analytical methodology
grounded in the critical examination of primary sources and the synthesis of
secondary historical scholarship. The goal was to reconstruct the timeline and
key characteristics of the Bukhara People's Soviet Republic and to analyze the
meaning and implications of its development stages.
A central primary source for this study is the Constitution (Fundamental
Law) of the Bukhara People’s Soviet Republic adopted in September 1921 [2].
This document, recorded at the Second All-Bukhara Congress (Kurultai) of
People's Representatives, provides first-hand evidence of the republic’s
proclaimed principles - such as sovereignty, the distribution of power, and
property rights. Excerpts from this constitution have been analyzed to
understand the legal foundation and ideology of the BPSR. In addition, official
proclamations, government decrees, and contemporary correspondence were
consulted to gather information on the establishment of BPSR’s government and
its policies.
Secondary Sources: The study draws on established historical works and
recent scholarly research concerning early Soviet Central Asia and the Bukhara
revolution. Key references include entries from the Big Soviet Encyclopedia and
modern historical analyses that provide context and interpretation. For example,
the Big Soviet Encyclopedia (1970s edition) offers an overview of the BPSR’s
chronology and significance.
Results.
Results are presented in chronological order, detailing the main
stages of the Bukhara People's Soviet Republic’s development, including its
formation, governance evolution, legal and constitutional changes, and shifts in
international status.
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Stage 1. Revolutionary Overthrow and Formation of the BPSR (1920).
The
first stage of the BPSR’s development was its violent birth out of the Bukharan
Revolution of 1920. In August 1920, relations between the Emirate of Bukhara
and the Bolsheviks had reached a breaking point. The emir, Alim Khan, had
rebuffed earlier demands to reform and to harbor Bolshevik forces, while local
revolutionaries (the Young Bukharians) were increasingly determined to topple
the archaic regime.
By the end of 1920, the BPSR had taken shape with a revolutionary
government, but it remained under severe strain. Civil conflict ignited almost
immediately. The ousted Emir Alim Khan, though exiled, had supporters who
regrouped as part of a broader anti-Bolshevik insurgency known as the
Basmachi movement. In late 1920 and early 1921, bands of Basmachi (a term
used by Bolsheviks for the Muslim guerrillas) began to resist the new order,
especially in the more remote eastern regions of Bukhara and along the borders
with Afghanistan. Thus, even as the BPSR established itself, it faced the challenge
of defending its revolution and extending its authority across the former
emirate’s territory, a struggle that would persist throughout its existence.
Stage 2. Establishing Governance and State Institutions (1920–1921).
The
second stage of BPSR’s development involved the consolidation of governance
structures and initial reforms in the period from late 1920 through 1921. After
the immediate revolutionary turmoil subsided, the new authorities in Bukhara
sought to transition from a provisional revolutionary committee to a stable
governmental framework. Key to this was the convening of representative
bodies and the creation of a permanent government defined by law.
During this stage, Bukhara’s government also contended with security
challenges. The Basmachi insurgency grew more formidable through 1921
(Stage 3 will detail this further), meaning that large swathes of Eastern Bukhara
were outside the new government’s control. This reality forced the BPSR to
allocate significant resources to military campaigns and to rely heavily on Red
Army contingents provided by the RSFSR to maintain stability. The presence of
Russian troops on Bukhara’s soil, although invited by the BPSR as allies against
counter-revolution, underscored the limitations of Bukhara’s sovereignty even
in this early stage.
Stage 3. Legal and Constitutional Developments – The 1921 Constitution.
A
milestone in the BPSR’s development was the promulgation of the Constitution
of the Bukhara People’s Soviet Republic in September 1921. This event marks
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the third stage, focusing on the formalization of the republic’s legal foundation
and its distinctive features in law and governance.
The Constitution’s adoption was celebrated as a progressive step. It
provided a legal basis for further reforms and solidified the institutional
structure of the BPSR. For example, after September 1921, local elections to
soviets were carried out under the new constitutional rules, allowing a
functioning of local self-government (under communist oversight).
Stage 4. Challenges of Sovereignty – Civil Strife and External Relations (1922–
1923).
The years 1922 and 1923 constituted a fourth stage in the BPSR’s
trajectory, characterized by ongoing internal challenges and evolving external
relations that together tested the republic’s sovereignty and stability. During
this period, the BPSR struggled to assert full control over its territory against
insurgency, while its dependence on Soviet Russia became increasingly
pronounced.
By the end of 1923, the Red Army, along with local militia, had made
progress in suppressing the revolt: Enver Pasha was killed in early 1922, and
other bands were gradually pushed into the mountains or across borders. The
territory of the BPSR became more secure, setting the stage for the final political
transformation to come. However, in quelling the revolt, the BPSR had paid the
price of further intertwining its fate with that of the Soviet Union, as Russian
troops and Bolshevik administrators now firmly entrenched themselves in
Bukhara’s affairs.
Stage 5. Transition to a Socialist Republic and National Delimitation (1924).
The final stage of the BPSR’s development occurred in 1924, with the transition
of the Bukhara People's Soviet Republic into the Bukharan Socialist Soviet
Republic (Bukhara SSR) and its subsequent dissolution as an independent entity.
This stage was driven by the Soviet policy of national delimitation in Central
Asia and marked the culmination of Bukhara’s integration into the Soviet
Union’s structure.
Discussion.
The governance model of the BPSR was essentially an
experiment in transitional rule under Soviet auspices. It combined elements of
Bolshevik one-party dictatorship with attempts at inclusive, broad-based
participation of local society. This dual character was encapsulated in the
Bolshevik description of Bukhara as a “revolutionary-democratic dictatorship of
the proletariat and peasantry”. In practice, this meant that governance was
carried out by the Communist Party and its allies, but with representation
extending to peasants, artisans, and intellectuals.
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Role of Local Elites. The involvement of Young Bukharan leaders like
Fayzulla Khojaev in top positions meant the BPSR’s governance had a strong
indigenous component. These local elites were crucial as cultural and political
intermediaries. They could communicate Bolshevik policies in the local
languages (Uzbek, Persian/Tajik), frame them in terms that resonated with the
populace, and tap into pre-existing reformist sentiments (Jadidism) that sought
to modernize Bukharan society. Their presence also lent credibility to the idea
that Bukhara was not simply ruled by foreigners or Russian colonizers, but by its
own people who had embraced a new ideology.
However, the partnership between local revolutionaries and the Bolshevik
cadre was not one of equals. The Communist Party of Bukhara was subordinate
to the Russian Communist Party’s Central Asian Bureau. Real power, especially
in matters of security and ultimate decision-making, rested with Bolshevik
officials who maintained an advisory (and sometimes commanding) role in
Bukhara. This dynamic led to tensions: for instance, when local leaders like
Usman Khoja acted too independently (such as arresting RSFSR officers in
Dushanbe in 1921), Moscow swiftly intervened to reassert control. The purges
of 1922 that reduced party membership from 14,000 to 1,000 also illustrate how
the initial broad coalition was narrowed to a core of loyal communists, many of
whom were likely ethnically Russian or closely aligned locals. Over time,
governance became more straightforwardly Bolshevik in character, shedding
much of the early inclusive idealism.
Islam and Traditional Authority.
The Bolshevik secular governance model
came into potential conflict with the authority of Islamic leaders (ulama) and
traditional community heads. In the early BPSR, the government took a
relatively moderate line: it did not engage in wholesale anti-religious campaigns
but tried to co-opt or at least neutralize religious figures. Some ulama were
given roles in education reform or asked to endorse government messages. This
contrasts with later, more aggressive anti-religious policies once Soviet control
was solidified.
Personal Rivalries and Factionalism.
As in many revolutionary settings,
BPSR governance saw personal power struggles. Khojaev, as a charismatic
young leader, had to navigate rivals within the Young Bukharians and pressure
from Russian communists who might distrust his nationalist tendencies. The
frequent changes in the head of state (Chairman of the CEC) indicate that no
single local figure was allowed to dominate political power unchecked, aside
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from Khojaev’s prominent but eventually curtailed role. This revolving door in
leadership was a means to balance factions and ensure loyalty to Moscow.
Pragmatic Adaptation.
It was a pragmatic response to the socio-economic
structure of Bukhara. The Emirate of Bukhara had been a feudal state with
negligible modern industry; its wealth and production lay in agriculture and
trade. Imposing a complete abolition of private property overnight could have
led to economic collapse or mass resistance. Thus, by permitting peasants to
keep their land and traders to own their shops, the BPSR leadership sought to
maintain productivity and avoid antagonizing the majority of the population.
This approach mirrors the logic of Lenin’s New Economic Policy, suggesting that
Bukhara was a testing ground for how socialism might be adapted in agrarian
societies.
Transitional Ideology.
The allowance of private property was justified by the
concept of a transitional stage. The BPSR was not yet calling itself a “socialist”
republic until 1924; it was a “People’s” republic. This nomenclature implied an
understanding that Bukhara needed an interim period to develop economically
and socially before it could achieve full socialism. During this period, multi-class
cooperation (workers, peasants, petite bourgeoisie) under communist
leadership was deemed acceptable. The constitution formalized this idea,
essentially embedding the NEP-style concessions into the republic’s law.
From a legal development standpoint, the BPSR’s constitution is significant
as one of the earliest examples of constitutional governance in Central Asia.
Prior to this, Central Asian khanates and emirates operated on dynastic law and
Islamic law, not on modern constitutional principles. The BPSR constitution
introduced the concept of a supreme law, rights (even if limited) of citizens, and
defined state organs in a rational-legal way. It paved the way for later
constitutions of the Uzbek SSR and Tajik ASSR by providing an initial template,
albeit those later constitutions (especially under Stalin’s influence in the 1930s)
became more centralized and aligned with the Soviet Union’s highly unified
structure.
Integration into the USSR.
The culmination of this approach was in 1924’s
national delimitation, where the fiction of Bukhara’s independence was
peacefully discarded. The BPSR effectively voted itself out of existence in
October 1924, demonstrating how Soviet sovereignty ultimately subsumed
national sovereignty. One way to interpret this is through the concept of “limited
sovereignty” that was later characteristic of Soviet republics: they had
constitutions and governments, but their sovereignty was limited by the
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overarching control of the Communist Party and the Soviet Union’s federal
structure. Bukhara had an extreme case of limited sovereignty, which started as
semi-independence and ended as full integration.
From an international law perspective of the time, the BPSR was not a
member of international bodies nor did it sign treaties independently (except
with Soviet entities). However, its existence was used by the USSR in
propaganda to claim they were granting self-determination. The lack of foreign
diplomatic recognition (outside the communist bloc) implies that other
countries perceived the BPSR as a Soviet puppet. This was similar for the
Khorezm PSR. In contrast, a case like the Mongolian People’s Republic (formed
in 1924 with Soviet backing) actually maintained a longer independent existence
and even got some recognition. Bukhara and Khorezm were unique in that they
were quickly absorbed.
Conclusion.
In conclusion, the development of the Bukhara People's Soviet
Republic was a microcosm of the challenges faced in transplanting Bolshevik
revolution to non-Russian contexts. Its story underscores the importance of
understanding regional revolutions on their own terms, even as they intersect
with global ideological forces. The BPSR’s legacy is reflected in the political
geography of Central Asia and in the continuing dialogue about how modern
states can reconcile diverse traditions with ambitious visions of progress. It
remains a testament to a transformative moment when an ancient city of
scholars and merchants briefly became the arena for revolutionary state-
building, before yielding to the new order that shaped the 20th century in that
region.
The list of used literature:
1.
Big Soviet Encyclopedia (1969–1978), Entry on "Bukhara People’s Soviet
Republic". Bol’shaya Sovetskaya Entsiklopediya, 3rd Edition.
2.
Constitution of the Bukhara People’s Soviet Republic (1921). Second All-
Bukhara Kurultai of People’s Representatives, September 23, 1921.
3.
Khalid, Adeeb. The Politics of Muslim Cultural Reform: Jadidism in Central
Asia. University of California Press, 1998.
4.
Bukharan Revolution and Civil War (1918–1924). Detailed in: Becker,
Seymour. Russia’s Protectorates in Central Asia: Bukhara and Khiva (1865–
1924). Harvard University Press, 1968.
5.
“The Basmachi: Turkestan’s National Liberation Movement.” Sahadeo, Jeff
in Revolutionary Russia and Central Asia, Cambridge University Press, 2001.
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6.
Central Asian Bureau Documents (1920–1924). Collected in S. Abashin et
al., Turkestan i Turkestantsy, Moscow, 2017.
7.
Fitzpatrick, Sheila. The Russian Revolution (Documents), Oxford
University Press, 2001.
8.
Archive of Fayzulla Khojaev’s Works. Selected Works of Fayzulla Khojaev
(in Uzbek/Russian, Tashkent archive publications).
