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KHOREZM AND ITS CLASSICAL TURKISH POETS: RESEARCH
TRENDS AND METHODOLOGIES
Nargiza Adambaeva
Associate Professor, Doctor of Philology,
Oriental University
Tashkent, Uzbekistan
https://orcid.org/0009-0008-3286-4918
https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.15294187
Annotation.
The works of many talented poets, historians, and translators
who created immortal masterpieces in the Turkish language, such as Sulayman
Boqirgoniy (12th century), Rabghuzi (early 13th-14th century), Khafiz Khorezmi
(14th century), Qutb Khorezmi (14th century), Haydar Khorezmi (late 14th-
early 15th century), Abulghazi Bahodirkhan (1603-1664), Andalib (1710-1770),
Munis (1778-1829), Ogahi (1809-1874), Kamil Khorezmi (1825-1899),
Muhammadrasul Mirzo (1840-1922), Muhammad Rahimkhon Feruz (1844-
1910), Ahmad Tabibiy (1869-1911), Mutrib Khonakharobi (1870-1925), Avaz
Utar (1884-1919), and Muhammad Yusuf Bayoni (1840-1923), has been of
interest and studied since their time. In this context, we find it necessary to
briefly express the scientific foundations for researching the creative activities
of some Khorezmian Turkish poets and their poetic masterpieces.
Key words:
lyric, epic, literature, poem, genre, manuscript, Uzbek,
education, Turkic, Persian.
Saifi Saroyi (1321-1396), a lyric and epic poet as well as a translator of
14th-century Uzbek literature, received his initial education in his homeland,
and later in the city of Saray, which was the center of the Golden Horde. He
continued his work in Iran and Turkey and passed away in Egypt. Saifi Saroyi's
creative legacy includes lyric poems, the epic Suhail and Guldursun, and a
translation of Sheikh Saadi's Gulistan. In the poetry of Saifi Saroyi, love and
loyalty are exalted, the beauty of the beloved and spiritual purity are honored.
The epic Suhail and Guldursun is a notable work of 14th-century epic poetry. In
this epic, the love and loyalty, courage and bravery between the main characters,
Guldursun and Suhail, are expressed. One of Saifi Saroyi's great contributions is
his translation of the Persian-Tajik poet Saadi's Gulistan into Turkish, under the
title Gulistani Bit-Turkī. This work holds significant importance in world didactic
literature. An excellent example of artistic prose in Uzbek classical literature is
reflected in the work Qissai Rabguzī by the Khorazmian writer Rabguzī (late
13th century and early 14th century). This work consists of 72 short and long
fascinating stories, tales, and poetic gems based on the content of the Qur'an and
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hadiths. It is also the first known instance of Turkic ghazals. Qissai Rabguzī is a
high example of both religious and secular artistic thought and is valued
worldwide as a bright symbol of humanism. Rabguzī's works are also of great
importance in the study of 14th-century Uzbek literary language, including the
Khwarazmian dialect.
Khorazmi (14th century) is one of the first bilingual (two-language) poets
of Uzbek classical literature. In his work Muhabbatnama (The Book of Love), he
created remarkable examples of both Turkic and Persian poetry. The main
information about Khorazmi's life and activity is presented in his own work.
Muhabbatnama was written between 1353 and 1354 and consists of 317 verses
in Turkic and 156 verses in Persian-Tajik. The work includes various poetic
genres such as elegy, masnavi, ghazal, qita, and madhiya (praise poetry).
Muhabbatnama is an extremely high-quality work, a reflection of human
emotions and a call to live with noble feelings and high spirituality. While
depicting the feelings of love and longing, the poet effectively employs artistic
imagery, creating timeless and vivid images. One of the first representatives of
Uzbek translation literature, Qutb Khorazmi (14th century), has left no detailed
information about his life and activities. Scholars know that he had a good
relationship with the ruler of the Golden Horde, Tanibek, and received support
from him. The only work of the poet that has come down to us is the epic
Khosrow and Shirin, which was actually written as a dedication to this ruler. The
epic Khosrow and Shirin is considered a free translation of Nizami Ganjavi’s
work and is the first masterful example of the "Khamsa" tradition. Through his
translation of the work, Qutb aimed not only to bring this great masterpiece to
his people but also to address the events of his time and contemporary life
issues. Therefore, while the essence of the original work is preserved, certain
changes and innovations have been introduced, making it a rare and valuable
moral gem. In particular, the work includes references to the life of the Golden
Horde, such as hunting, feasts, weddings, and other everyday scenes. Qutb
omitted some sections from the original text, such as those related to Kalīla and
Dimna, Khosrow and Shirin, and the advice given by Prophet Muhammad to his
son. Instead, he incorporated new themes, praising the rulers Tanibek and
Malikani, thus taking a creative approach to the translation. Qutb's creative
activity is of great significance, as it paved the way for later translations and
made a substantial contribution to the literary relations between Uzbek and
Azerbaijani literature.
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One of the prominent figures in Uzbek classical literature, whose work was
acknowledged by Alisher Navoi, is Haidar Khorazmi (late 14th century – early
15th century). His creative activity is discussed in Navoi's Majolis al-Nafa'is,
Muhokamat al-Lughatayn, and in the Tazkirat al-Shu'ara by Davlatshah
Samarqandi. Haidar Khorazmi's epic Mahzan al-Asrar has come down to us, and
it is dedicated to the Timurid ruler Sultan Iskandar. This work was inspired by
the same-named epic by the Azerbaijani poet Nizami. In this work, Haidar
Khorazmi emerges as a progressive individual and a talented poet, expressing
his aesthetic and educational views with high artistic quality. The work remains
particularly relevant today, as it promotes the idea of the ideal human and calls
for people to strive for goodness, faith, and honesty. Recent studies have proven
that the author of the epic Gul va Navruz, previously attributed to Lutfi, is
actually Haidar Khorazmi. This work, too, holds significant importance in the
history of literature due to its plot and artistic brilliance.
Hafiz Khorazmi (late 14th century – early 15th century) is another great
poet of Uzbek classical literature who lived and worked in Khorazm. The role of
literary scholar H. Sulaymonov in making the poet's works known to science is
pivotal, as it was through his efforts that the poet's works were published in
1981. Hafiz Khorazmi, before Navoi, was the poet who wrote the most ghazals in
Uzbek literature and pioneered the muštahzod genre. The poems in his divan
are diverse in subject matter and are considered a high example of artistic skill
in terms of content and the expression of social-philosophical ideas. One of the
talented poets from Khorezm in Uzbek literature is Majlisi (late 15th – 16th
century). He spent most of his life in Bukhara, serving at the court of Ubaydullah
Khan and his son Abdulaziz Khan. The only surviving work of the writer is the
romantic-adventurous epic
“Qissai Sayfulmulk”
. The plot of this work
creatively draws from traditional oral folk narratives, the Persian prose version
of “Qissai Sayfulmulk,” the poem “Gul va Navruz,” and the collection “One
Thousand and One Nights.”
One of the prominent figures of Uzbek literature in the 15th–16th centuries
was
Muhammad Salih
(1455–1535), who left a distinctive mark in the history
of literature as both a lyrical and epic poet. He lived and worked during the
period of conflict between the Timurid and Shaybanid dynasties in Central Asia.
His father, the ruler of Khorezm, Amir Nursa’id, was executed by Sultan Husayn
Bayqara. After this, Muhammad Salih aligned himself with Shaybani Khan and
participated in his military campaigns. According to historical sources, the poet
also served as governor in the cities of Bukhara, Charjuy (present-day
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Turkmenabat), and Niso. From Muhammad Salih, we have inherited a
multifaceted work titled
“Shayboniynoma.”
This epic is recognized as the
first
historical poem
in Uzbek literature and is dedicated to Shaybani Khan. The
poem consists of
76 chapters
and
8,902 lines
. It is valued for its detailed
depiction of historical events and authentic portrayal of life during the wars
between the Timurids and the Shaybanids. Moreover, the poem emphasizes the
ideal of a just ruler
, a concept that remains relevant even today. One of the
notable, though not yet thoroughly studied, figures of 17th-century classical
Uzbek literature is
Mawlana Vafo Vafoyi
. Most information about his life and
work comes from the book “Firdavs ul-Iqbol” by Munis and Ogahiy. Vafoyi was
not only a talented poet but also a skilled artist (naqqosh). Known for his quick
wit, he composed poems that exposed corrupt officials of his time. In his poetry,
along with traditional themes like
love and loyalty, spirituality, and
humanism
, he also addressed
social injustice
, making his work both
artistically rich and socially conscious.
Nurmuhammad Gharib Andalib
(1710–1770) was another talented poet
from Khorezm who studied in the madrasas of Khiva and Bukhara. He wrote in
Turkmen, Uzbek, and Persian
, and as a progressive intellectual of his time, he
composed both
lyrical and epic
works. Over
40 of his ghazals
are still sung
among the Uzbek and Turkmen peoples today.
Andalib made a significant contribution to the development of
Uzbek
classical epic poetry
. His works such as “Yusuf and Zulaykho,” “Layli and
Majnun,” and “Gharib and Shokhsanam” are distinguished by their high artistic
quality and became widely popular as “
folk books
.”
Muhammadniyoz Nishotiy
(18th century) was a lyrical and epic poet born in Khorezm who spent most of
his life in Bukhara. His surviving works include the epic “Husni Dil” and the
divan “Ghazaliyot va Muammosoti Nishotiy.” He also composed several
mukhammases
(five-line stanzas) in response to the works of
Navoi and
Fuzuli
. Nishotiy's most acclaimed work is “Husni Dil,” in which he demonstrates
his mastery of the
debate genre
, earning him recognition as a skilled literary
artist. The literary environment of Khorezm in the 18th–19th centuries was
renowned for its talented poets, historians, and translators such as Umar Boqiy,
Roqim (1742–1825), Pahlavonquli Ravnaq (1725–1805), Munis (1778–1829),
Ogahiy (1809–1874), and Komil Khorezmi (1825–1899). These figures
significantly enriched Uzbek literature with their poetic and scholarly
contributions.
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The early 20th century marked a flourishing period for classical Khorezm
poetry, often referred to as the "Feruz era" of literary revival. Muhammad
Rahimkhan Feruz (1844–1910), a ruler remembered as an enlightened and
culturally supportive leader, played a pivotal role in this renaissance. During his
47-year reign, the literary atmosphere in Khorezm thrived: manuscript
production increased, writers received generous patronage, and many talented
authors gathered at the royal court. Under Feruz’s initiative and guidance,
several important poetry collections were compiled, including:
Bayoz-i Musaddasot (Collection of Six-Line Poems),
Bayoz-i Mukhammasot (Collection of Five-Line Stanza Poems),
Bayoz-i Majmuai Ash’or (General Collection of Poems),
These anthologies included works by both well-known and lesser-known
poets, preserving a rich spectrum of literary voices. The Russian scholar A.
Samoylovich, in one of his articles, documented the literary activities of poets
who worked at the Feruz court, further highlighting the cultural vibrancy of this
period. Most poets of Khorezm were deeply inspired by the works of
Alisher
Navoi.
As noted by literary scholar
S. Matkarimova,
who is specifically studying
this subject, poets such as
Nishotiy, Munis, Ogahiy, Komil,
and
Niyoziy
were
considered true followers of Navoi. While expressing deep respect for their
mentor, each of them maintained
their own voice, unique creative style, and
poetic mastery,
and they consistently continued Navoi’s literary traditions.
They drew richly from the
artistic treasures
of Navoi’s legacy and created
a significant div of work that glorified the
true essence of humanity
—
praising pure emotions, aspirations, inner beauty, grace, and moral excellence.
Their poetry reflected a desire to protect human dignity from the turmoil of fate
and the instability of the times. Through their verses, they explored themes like
spiritual perfection, societal harmony, national happiness, and the future
of the homeland.
Approaching Navoi’s traditions
creatively
, they absorbed his profound
poetic insight,
philosophical depth
, and
engagement with pressing social
issues
. They carried forward these traditions, adapting them to their own
historical realities and cultural environment
, and produced works that were
beloved by the people and respected by fellow poets. Their contribution helped
preserve and evolve the classical heritage of Uzbek literature, making it resonate
with both their contemporaries and future generations.
In general, the works of classical Turkic-speaking poets of Khorezm can be
categorized into three main groups:
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1.
Poetic works – lyrical and epic poems that showcase the artistic
depth, emotional subtlety, and philosophical insights of the authors.
2.
Historical-literary works – narrative compositions that combine
historical facts with literary artistry, often reflecting the political, social, and
cultural life of their times.
3.
Translated works – literary translations from Persian, Arabic, and
other languages that demonstrate the poets’ linguistic mastery and their efforts
to make world literature accessible to Turkic-speaking readers.
Each of these categories reflects the high level and broad scope of classical
Khorezm writers’ creativity. Studying the works within each category requires
separate scholarly research, as each genre carries its own unique style,
structure, and cultural significance. The scientific foundations for studying the
creative legacy of the above-mentioned and other Khorezm classical authors are
based on the following:
A deep understanding of historical, cultural, and linguistic context;
Comparative analysis with other classical Eastern literatures, particularly
Persian, Arabic, and Chagatai traditions;
Consideration of the influence of Alisher Navoi and how Khorezm poets
developed and reinterpreted his legacy;
Use of manuscript sources, anthologies, and bayoz (collections) compiled
in the Khiva court and literary circles;
Application of interdisciplinary approaches, involving literature, history,
philology, and cultural studies;
Emphasis on preservation and digitization of rare manuscripts for broader
academic access;
Recognition of these works as a valuable part of the Turkic-Islamic literary
heritage.
Together, these foundations provide a rich and promising framework for
future research into the literary and cultural legacy of classical Khorezm
literature.
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