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THE FORMATION OF DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS BETWEEN UZBEKISTAN AND
CHINA
Mamasidiqov Muhammad Nabijon ugli
University of Exact and Social Sciences,
Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of History, 2nd-year Master's student
Email:
Phone number: +998 94 198 88 87
Abstract:
This article examines the establishment and evolution of diplomatic relations
between Uzbekistan and the People’s Republic of China, highlighting their historical
underpinnings, political dynamics, and strategic significance within the broader context of
Central Asian geopolitics. By situating the formation of bilateral relations in the aftermath of
Uzbekistan’s independence in 1991, the research underscores the multifaceted drivers of
cooperation, including political recognition, economic interdependence, and regional security
imperatives. Special emphasis is placed on the mechanisms through which China’s growing
global influence, articulated through initiatives such as the Belt and Road Initiative, has shaped
Uzbekistan’s foreign policy orientations, while Uzbekistan’s strategic geographical position and
reform-driven domestic policy have enhanced its role as a reliable partner for China. The study
not only investigates the political and economic determinants of bilateral cooperation but also
addresses the challenges, contradictions, and opportunities inherent in these relations. In doing
so, the article contributes to the academic discourse on post-Soviet state diplomacy, Sino-
Central Asian engagement, and the transformation of Eurasian international relations.
Keywords:
Uzbekistan–China relations; diplomatic recognition; Central Asia; foreign policy;
Belt and Road Initiative; political cooperation; economic partnership; Eurasian geopolitics.
Introduction:
The establishment of diplomatic relations between Uzbekistan and the
People’s Republic of China represents a significant milestone in the contemporary history of
Central Asia, reflecting not only the reconfiguration of international politics after the
dissolution of the Soviet Union but also the emergence of new paradigms of bilateral and
multilateral cooperation in Eurasia. In the early 1990s, when Uzbekistan declared its
independence and embarked on the path of sovereign state-building, one of the most urgent
tasks it faced was the construction of a foreign policy architecture capable of ensuring its
international recognition, political legitimacy, and economic integration into the global system.
China, as a rising power with both historical connections to the region and a growing interest in
expanding its influence across Eurasia, quickly emerged as one of the key actors in shaping
Uzbekistan’s external relations. The diplomatic recognition of Uzbekistan by China in January
1992 and the subsequent establishment of official diplomatic ties laid the foundation for a
partnership that has since expanded in scope and deepened in strategic significance. Historically,
the relationship between the territories that now comprise Uzbekistan and China predates the
formation of modern nation-states, tracing its origins to the transcontinental Silk Road that
facilitated trade, cultural exchanges, and the transmission of ideas between East and West.
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Ancient cities such as Samarkand, Bukhara, and Khiva were vibrant centers of commerce and
learning that maintained dynamic connections with the Chinese civilization, particularly during
the Han and Tang dynasties, when caravan routes flourished and intellectual currents traveled
alongside material goods. These premodern linkages not only shaped the socio-economic
landscapes of Central Asia but also generated cultural memories that inform contemporary
diplomatic narratives. Thus, the modern diplomatic partnership can be seen as both a
continuation of historical patterns of engagement and a reconfiguration of them under the
conditions of globalization, sovereignty, and regional integration. The initial stage of
Uzbekistan–China relations was characterized by the establishment of mutual trust, the
negotiation of diplomatic protocols, and the articulation of shared political values, particularly
the principles of sovereignty, non-interference in internal affairs, and respect for territorial
integrity. These principles became the cornerstone of bilateral relations, distinguishing them
from more asymmetrical or ideologically driven alliances that often marked the Cold War era.
For Uzbekistan, cultivating relations with China was not only an exercise in diversifying its
foreign policy portfolio but also a strategic necessity, given the geopolitical vulnerabilities of a
landlocked state surrounded by major powers. For China, on the other hand, engaging with
Uzbekistan served multiple purposes: consolidating its influence in Central Asia, securing
stability on its western borders, and creating favorable conditions for the advancement of long-
term economic and security initiatives. Over time, the bilateral relationship developed into a
multi-vector partnership encompassing political dialogue, economic cooperation, cultural
exchanges, and security collaboration. The political dimension has been manifested through
regular high-level visits, the signing of bilateral agreements, and the alignment of positions in
regional and international forums such as the United Nations and the Shanghai Cooperation
Organization[1]. Economically, China has emerged as one of Uzbekistan’s largest trading
partners and investors, particularly in sectors such as energy, infrastructure, and manufacturing.
This trajectory has been further reinforced by China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), which
positions Uzbekistan as a vital hub within transcontinental transportation and logistics networks.
The cultural and humanitarian dimension of relations has also expanded, with growing
academic exchanges, educational programs, and people-to-people interactions that foster
mutual understanding and trust. Nevertheless, the development of Uzbekistan–China relations
has not been without challenges and contradictions. While the partnership is often described in
terms of mutual benefit and strategic complementarity, critical observers have raised questions
about asymmetries in economic dependence, the potential risks of debt accumulation, and the
implications of China’s growing presence for Uzbekistan’s sovereignty and policy autonomy.
At the same time, regional dynamics—including the competition for influence among external
powers such as Russia, the United States, and the European Union—have complicated the
calculus of bilateral relations. Moreover, the evolving domestic contexts of both countries,
including Uzbekistan’s reform agenda and China’s shifting global strategies, have added layers
of complexity to the partnership. From an academic perspective, the study of Uzbekistan–China
diplomatic relations is significant for several reasons[2]. First, it provides insights into the
foreign policy strategies of post-Soviet states navigating a complex international environment
marked by both opportunities and constraints. Second, it contributes to the understanding of
China’s global rise and its efforts to reshape the international system by forging new
partnerships, particularly in strategically important regions such as Central Asia. Third, it
highlights the interplay between historical legacies and contemporary geopolitical imperatives,
demonstrating how the echoes of the Silk Road continue to resonate in modern diplomacy.
Finally, it underscores the importance of examining bilateral relations not in isolation but as
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
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part of broader regional and global dynamics that shape the evolution of international order.
Given the multifaceted nature of Uzbekistan–China relations, this article adopts an
interdisciplinary and multi-layered approach to analyzing their formation and development. By
situating the diplomatic partnership within historical, political, economic, and cultural
frameworks, the study seeks to illuminate both the structural factors and the agency-driven
choices that have shaped the trajectory of bilateral cooperation. In doing so, it aims to
contribute to scholarly debates on Eurasian geopolitics, post-Soviet foreign policies, and the
global implications of China’s engagement with emerging states. The subsequent sections of
the article will provide a comprehensive review of relevant literature, outline the
methodological approaches employed, present the main findings, and engage in a critical
discussion of the implications of these results for both theory and practice.
Literature review:
The scholarly exploration of Uzbekistan–China relations has increasingly
attracted the attention of researchers worldwide, particularly after the proclamation of
Uzbekistan’s independence in 1991 and the subsequent geopolitical reconfiguration of Central
Asia. In the broader field of international relations, the bilateral partnership has been analyzed
through various theoretical and methodological lenses, ranging from realist interpretations that
emphasize power politics and strategic interests to liberal perspectives focusing on
interdependence, institutional frameworks, and the role of economic cooperation. Within this
spectrum, the works of foreign scholars stand out for their nuanced assessments of how the
Sino-Uzbek partnership contributes to both regional stability and the global ambitions of China.
One of the most influential contributions comes from Sebastian Peyrouse, a French scholar
whose research on Sino-Central Asian interactions emphasizes the structural dynamics of
China’s engagement with the region[3]. Peyrouse underscores the role of Central Asia as both a
strategic buffer and a crucial corridor for China’s westward expansion under the Belt and Road
Initiative. In his analysis, Uzbekistan emerges as a particularly significant partner due to its
demographic weight, reform-oriented domestic agenda, and pivotal geographical location at the
heart of Eurasian trade routes. Peyrouse argues that while China’s economic penetration into
Uzbekistan has been instrumental in modernizing key sectors such as energy and infrastructure,
it simultaneously raises questions about asymmetrical dependence and the potential
marginalization of local industries[4]. His scholarship situates Uzbekistan–China relations
within the broader narrative of China’s attempts to reshape Eurasian connectivity, thereby
linking the bilateral partnership to global transformations in trade, finance, and diplomacy.
Another noteworthy perspective is offered by Elizabeth Wishnick, an American scholar
specializing in Chinese foreign policy and security studies[5]. Wishnick highlights the security
dimension of Sino-Uzbek relations, particularly in the context of counterterrorism, border
stability, and the fight against transnational threats in the post-9/11 era. She stresses the
importance of Uzbekistan’s participation in the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) as a
platform where Chinese and Uzbek security interests converge. Wishnick contends that while
Beijing’s emphasis on combating the “three evils” (terrorism, separatism, and extremism)
aligns with Tashkent’s concerns about domestic radicalism and regional instability, the
asymmetrical distribution of power within the SCO often privileges Chinese interests.
Nonetheless, she acknowledges that Uzbekistan has skillfully leveraged its participation in such
frameworks to enhance its international standing and diversify its security partnerships beyond
Russia and the West[6]. Taken together, the contributions of Peyrouse and Wishnick illuminate
two critical dimensions of Uzbekistan–China diplomatic relations: the economic-structural
dimension that ties Uzbekistan into China’s grand strategy of Eurasian integration, and the
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security-strategic dimension that anchors bilateral cooperation in the imperatives of stability
and counterterrorism. Their works underscore both the opportunities and the vulnerabilities
inherent in the partnership, providing a complex, multi-layered picture that avoids simplistic
characterizations of either dependence or autonomy. Moreover, these scholarly insights suggest
that Uzbekistan–China relations must be understood not merely as a dyadic interaction but as
part of a broader regional and global order undergoing rapid transformation.
Methodology:
The methodological framework of this study is grounded in a
multidisciplinary approach that integrates the principles of historical-comparative analysis,
systemic-structural inquiry, and geopolitical contextualization, thereby ensuring a
comprehensive examination of Uzbekistan–China diplomatic relations. Historical-comparative
analysis is employed to trace the genesis and transformation of bilateral interactions from the
dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 to the present day, allowing for the identification of
continuities and ruptures in diplomatic practices. Systemic-structural inquiry, derived from
international relations theory, is utilized to conceptualize the Uzbekistan–China partnership
within the broader architecture of global and regional power configurations, particularly the
Eurasian subsystem shaped by the Belt and Road Initiative and the institutional mechanisms of
the Shanghai Cooperation Organization. Additionally, geopolitical contextualization provides a
spatial-temporal lens through which the strategic significance of Uzbekistan’s geographical
location and resource potential are evaluated in relation to China’s westward expansion and
global rise. The research also applies elements of content analysis to official treaties,
communiqués, and policy documents, thereby triangulating primary sources with secondary
scholarly interpretations. Collectively, these methods constitute a holistic and scientifically
rigorous framework that not only situates Uzbekistan–China relations within a multi-level
analytical matrix but also elucidates their dynamic interplay across political, economic, and
security dimensions.
Results:
The research findings demonstrate that the diplomatic relations between Uzbekistan
and China have undergone a profound transformation from formal recognition and pragmatic
cooperation in the early 1990s to the establishment of a multidimensional strategic partnership
characterized by deep political trust, expanding economic interdependence, and
institutionalized security collaboration. The analysis reveals that Uzbekistan’s foreign policy of
balancing among great powers has converged with China’s broader regional agenda,
particularly within the framework of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization and the Belt and
Road Initiative, thereby creating a mutually reinforcing trajectory of integration. Empirical
evidence from bilateral trade statistics, joint infrastructure projects, and diplomatic
communiqués confirms that the Uzbekistan–China partnership has transcended transactional
arrangements to evolve into a sustainable and long-term model of regional cooperation, wherein
Uzbekistan emerges as a pivotal actor in China’s westward strategy and China simultaneously
provides Uzbekistan with access to capital, technology, and geopolitical leverage, making their
diplomatic interaction both historically unprecedented and strategically consequential.
Discussion:
The scholarly debate surrounding the evolution of Uzbekistan–China diplomatic
relations has elicited divergent interpretations among foreign researchers, particularly in regard
to the nature, depth, and long-term implications of bilateral cooperation. One influential
perspective is articulated by David Shambaugh, a prominent American sinologist, who argues
that China’s engagement with Central Asia, including Uzbekistan, is primarily an extension of
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its geostrategic ambitions aimed at reshaping the Eurasian order. Shambaugh emphasizes that
the Belt and Road Initiative functions as a structural mechanism through which Beijing
consolidates its political leverage and ensures regional compliance by intertwining
infrastructure investment with security commitments[7]. According to his analysis, the
asymmetry in economic capabilities between China and Uzbekistan inevitably generates
dependency patterns, whereby Tashkent risks subordinating its long-term sovereignty to
Beijing’s broader strategic calculus. From this standpoint, Uzbekistan’s partnership with China
is perceived less as an equal diplomatic dialogue and more as a pragmatic adjustment to the
realities of power distribution in Eurasia[8]. Contrastingly, Marlene Laruelle, a distinguished
French scholar specializing in Central Asian studies, challenges this deterministic assessment
by underscoring the agency of Uzbekistan in shaping the parameters of its diplomatic
engagement with China. Laruelle argues that Uzbekistan’s foreign policy has been marked by a
consistent pursuit of “multi-vector” diplomacy, enabling Tashkent to benefit from Chinese
economic resources while simultaneously maintaining constructive relations with Russia, the
United States, and other regional actors[9]. In her interpretation, Uzbekistan’s strategic
positioning allows it to avoid overdependence on any single power, thereby transforming its
relationship with China into a pragmatic partnership rather than a hierarchical subordination.
She highlights evidence of Tashkent’s selective acceptance of Chinese proposals, refusal to host
foreign military bases, and active role in regional organizations as indicators of its capacity to
assert autonomy within the framework of bilateral cooperation. The polemical tension between
Shambaugh and Laruelle thus revolves around two fundamental questions: whether Uzbekistan
is becoming structurally dependent on China or whether it successfully utilizes diplomatic
flexibility to safeguard sovereignty while extracting developmental benefits[10]. While
Shambaugh foregrounds the asymmetry of power and the inevitability of Chinese dominance,
Laruelle underscores the adaptive strategies of small states in navigating great-power rivalries.
This academic debate enriches the understanding of Uzbekistan–China relations by highlighting
the dialectic between external structural pressures and internal agency, suggesting that the
bilateral partnership should be analyzed not as a fixed trajectory but as a dynamic process
contingent upon shifting regional, economic, and geopolitical variables.
Conclusion:
The historical trajectory of Uzbekistan–China diplomatic relations illustrates a
transition from initial recognition and cautious cooperation in the early 1990s to the
establishment of a robust and multifaceted strategic partnership in the twenty-first century. The
research confirms that bilateral interaction has been shaped by both structural imperatives—
such as China’s rising influence in Eurasia and Uzbekistan’s pursuit of economic
modernization—and by agency-driven strategies, including Tashkent’s commitment to multi-
vector diplomacy and Beijing’s effort to balance regional stability with economic expansion.
The analysis also underscores that the relationship is not unidirectional but rather dialectical, as
evidenced by Uzbekistan’s capacity to selectively engage with Chinese initiatives while
preserving autonomy and diversifying its foreign policy portfolio. This has enabled both sides
to consolidate mutual trust and to institutionalize cooperation across political, economic,
cultural, and security domains.
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