Frontline Social Sciences and History Journal
FRONTLINE JOURNALS
6
Review: Radiation Applications by Hisaaki Kudo
Hayder. K. Obayes
Department of Physics Sciences, Faculty of Science Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia
Directorate General of Education in Babylon Governorate, Ministry of Education, Baghdad, 51001, Iraq
A R T I C L E I N f
О
Article history:
Submission Date: 22 May 2025
Accepted Date: 18 June 2025
Published Date: 20 July 2025
VOLUME:
Vol.05 Issue07
Page No. 6-20
DOI: -
https://doi.org/10.37547/social-
A B S T R A C T
Radiation interacts in unique ways with matter, offering a wide variety of
application information that is used by scientists, engineers, architects, and
medical professionals to support their work. Over the years, these
researchers have improved radiation technologies through their
theoretical development, improvements in hardware, and software
developments that allow for better corrections for system imperfections.
Many of these advances have allowed the application of radiation science
to support a wide variety of other applications. These improvements have
allowed radiation applications that were once limited to use in large
research laboratories to be applied in field and industrial applications.
INTRODUCTION
What makes radiation unique? No other probe can
penetrate into and through thick layers of matter
and still carry information about the interior
structure of that matter. Many derived from
nuclear physics, these techniques can provide bulk
and surface information about a material’s
chemical and crystallographic composition, phase
and crystallite size, strain, magnetic properties,
and degree of order: for both crystalline and non-
crystalline materials. A nuclear spin is the lowest
possible magnetic moment, thus thermal neutrons
precess in an external magnetic field at a
controlled frequency; Modulated Magnetic Fields
precess the nuclear spins to a higher energy state,
then collapse them into the basic low-energy
nuclear spin state; thus, modulated magnetic
moments can be detected. Atoms with certain
electron densities interact and can be used to
identify
crystalline
and
polycrystalline
microstructures. Crystalline materials that scatter
Bragg planes can be used to obtain the atomic
positions within the lattice. Gamma-ray and X-ray
resonant scattering also can be used to obtain the
atomic positions. The presence of Pt scatters X-
rays with 7.07 keV energy to account for the atomic
displacements when this metal is used as a
catalyst.
TYPES OF RADIATION
Radiation is a natural phenomenon characterized
by the emission of energy and/or particles
resulting from spontaneous transformations of
unstable atomic nuclei occurring in radioactive
isotopes. The radiation produced in the decay
process is termed radioactive or nuclear radiation.
Another
category
of
radiation
is
the
electromagnetic
radiation
produced
by
decelerated charged particles incident on the field
of atomic nuclei and by accelerated charged
particles. Thermal effects produced on matter by
radiation is a measure of its intensity. There are
various types of radiation, generally classified into
two great families, particles and electromagnetic
waves. However problems of nomenclature exist
because specific types of particle radiation and
electromagnetic radiation have the same name.
Frontline Social Sciences and History Journal
ISSN: 2752-7018
Frontline Social Sciences and History Journal
FRONTLINE JOURNALS
7
Before Nobel prizes were instituted, particular
categories of particle radiation were differentiated
by the names of their discoverers.
Radiation is commonly designated by the letters α,
β, γ,
and X. Synonyms for this nomenclature
include alphons, betatrons, gamatrons and xitrons.
Other designations for particle radiation are H, Hs,
Li, Li+ (protons and protons of solar winds),
(deuterons, antimatter), e, e+ (exotic electrons
emitted in beta-decay), n, n (neutrons emitted in
nuclear reactions) and other letters of the Latin or
Greek alphabet. Notation for particle radiation
generally utilizes letters denoting the electrical
charge and/or mass of the particle, while symbols
for
electromagnetic
radiation
are
purely
conventional. The name of a particular radiation
source usually precedes the letter or symbol. For
example: U, U, 232Th, Californium are respectively
sources of radiation emitting α particles, α+8346d,
8370g, 23290g (radiation emitted in decay
processes by uranium series, thorium series and
actinide series, exotic electrons emitted in beta-
decay of uranium), n, 210Pb, D, 232Th (neutrons
emitted from beryllium, and by plutonium by
neutrons incident on actinide nuclei). Radiation
produced in a nuclear interaction is designated
with an asterisk (for example: D*, D*, 11C).
1. Alpha Radiation
In 1899, Ernest Rutherford and Frederick Soddy
found that some of the radioactive disintegrations
used up elements e-scattering particles made up
that which penetrated matter the least, possessing
characteristics like a high mass, a +2 charge, and
great
speed
but
lacking
electromagnetic
interactions. Their conclusion was that with δ
electrons and argon, particles accounting for
electrical neutrality were roaming about in nuclei.
In 1932, Chadwick discovered, by bombarding
beryllium with α particles, their mass
-neutral
particles: the neutrons.
Nowadays, the α man
-made isotope gel comprises
the 93 natural ones, produced when with β or γ
emissions and chemical disintegrations. They
become increasingly unstable with A in the
presence of high Z. In 1/2 times, most α isotopes
emit α particles + light isotopes, e.g., the α of
uranium-238 emits alpha particles from radon-
222, the only gas emanation technique to extract
uranium oxidized ores and concentration
pyrometallurgical methods. Emanation techniques
are needed to locate radon salts due to α particle
lethargy, their very tiny flux on the Earth's surface.
2. Beta Radiation
Beta particles are described as high-energy
electrons, ejected from the nucleus as a
consequence of the weak nuclear force interaction,
which occurs when a neutron is converted into a
proton. A proton then remains in the atom nucleus,
making a daughter atom more proton-rich, while
the beta particle, accompanied by a tiny
antineutrino particle, is ejected. This process
transforms the original atom into a chemically
different atom, given that its atomic number has
changed; this is called beta decay, and its
exponentiation
into
chemical
equations
implements the change, both inducers and
products of the process being called beta emitters.
Beta radiation is the final effect generated by a very
complex process that involves the interaction of
quarks
–
and participating in the nuclei of atoms,
together with gluons, protons and neutrons. Beta
emission has been studied thanks to the Zeeman
effect, which is the splitting of light emitted by
atoms subjected to an external magnetic field. Beta
particles leading to gamma photons activate pair
production in the field of other radioisotope, which
is beta plus emitted and used in medicine. In the
presence of beta radiation, medical physics and the
patient’s isotopic image are essentially based on
the recoil implanted in semiconductor detectors
and scintillators led to in a momentum exchange
with beta particles emitted in div tissues.
Furthermore, scintillation and charge coupled
devices enhancers are base not only in the
detection of beta radiation, but also of positron
emission tumors, beginning with the emission of
relatives in the human.
3. Gamma Radiation
Gamma radiation consists of
high-energy
electromagnetic photons emitted during the de-
excitation of excited nuclear states. Gamma
photons are about 10,000 times more energetic
than optical photons and have a wide range of
energy from about 1 keV to over 30 MeV. Gamma
rays with energy less than about 500 keV usually
arise from the decay of long-lived isomeric nuclear
states. Higher energy gamma rays are produced
during alpha or beta decay to excited states of the
final nucleus. Nuclear transitions with energy in
the MeV range are the main source of gamma
radiation from astrophysical sources, especially
when nuclear abundances are significantly larger
than those of other elements.
Although gamma rays are electromagnetic waves
like visible light, they differ drastically from
normal optical radiation in three very important
respects. First, they are produced in high-energy
nuclear transitions, while optical photons are
Frontline Social Sciences and History Journal
FRONTLINE JOURNALS
8
produced in low-energy atomic transitions.
Second, they are highly penetrating, due to their
high photon energies. Their interactions with
matter are dominated by pair production and
Compton scattering, rather than the much larger
photoelectric cross section that dominates optical
radiation. This high penetrating power makes
gamma rays particularly dangerous, since even
small amounts of a radioactive source can emit, via
pair production or Compton scattering, a large flux
of penetrating radiation. Moreover, they can
produce secondary radiation by colliding with
nearby material. In radiation detection, secondary
radiation greatly complicates noble gas detection
for photon signals since it is emitted by the
detector material during the electron's passage
through. Finally, gamma rays transport much more
energy than does ordinary radiation.
2.4. X-rays
X-Rays were discovered in the late nineteenth
century. X-Rays are electromagnetic radiations
with short wavelengths, ranging from 10−9 to
10−12 m. Due to their tendency to go in a straight
path, X-Rays are used in machines for examining
the internal structures of objects and are also used
for the detection of defects in components.
However, the harmful effects of X-Rays are larger
than other types of radiations; hence precautions
should be taken against these radiations, and if
possible, the use of these radiations in any field
should be minimized. X-Rays are now used in
medicine, printing, electronics, while they have
also been effectively used for finding out the
properties of matter.
Most of the time, X-Rays are produced when high-
velocity electrons strike a metal plate in a vacuum.
X-Rays are rarely emitted by other sources in
nature. The most optimum source for producing X-
Rays is barium platinocyanide, and the most
economical and widely used sources are tungsten
and molybdenum. In X-Rays, first of their kind, the
characteristic rays were produced, which were
found for nickel, platinum, etc. at especial
conditions in a vacuum tube. Later, it was
discovered that including some bivalent and
trivalent metals, generally, any elements can
produce characteristic X-Rays. The various
processes that are involved in the production of X-
Rays
through
a
vacuum
tube
are
(i)
Bremsstrahlung (ii) Characteristic radiation
process.
MEDICAL APPLICATIONS OF RADIATION
Radiation medicine is an explicitly intriguing area
of medicine. It uses radiation whose effects are
typically untoward in large doses to treat, carefully
and locally, malignancies, chronic pain, or
overactive organs. In smaller doses, it can help
diagnosis and follow up all sorts of diseases. The
efficacy of these medical procedures is likely due to
the fact that they are based on some of the earliest
recognized but not understood characteristics of
disease. Namely that, in many cases, neoplastic or
infected tissues are more permeable than healthy
tissues, and that certain tissues are more
permeable to certain substances than other types
of tissues. The initial studies that supported those
hypotheses were made by a German chemist and
by a seminal American doctor. The first
experimented by using concentrations of unknown
chemical agents that damaged neoplastic tissues to
determine their composition. The other also
damaged such tissues, but with careful injections
of bacterial toxins.
Herein, we review the scientific background that
led to these extraordinary contributions and to the
subsequent harmonization of X-ray, radioisotope
and
radiopharmaceutical
techniques
and
radiochemical agents into radiation medicine.
Today, radiotherapy is an integral part in the
management of nearly 60% of all tumor patients,
not only in the treatment of primary tumors, but
also as part of the multimodality approach in
handling certain tumor types. Diagnostic imaging
and nuclear medicine are complementary
disciplines, with highly specialized performing
sectors. Diagnostic imaging applications mostly
focus on the morphology and structural changes of
the targeted tissues, while nuclear medicine is
specifically used to study the biological activity of
diseased tissues and organs.
1. Radiotherapy
The application of radiation in medicine is most
commonly associated with the treatment of
disease
–
radiotherapy. The radiation dose
delivered to patients is several orders of
magnitude greater than is received in a typical
diagnostic X-ray investigation, and the potential
damaging effects on normal tissues are, therefore,
correspondingly greater. Because the actual curing
effect of radiation is based on a deterministic tissue
reaction, there is no equivalent to the principles
governing the use of X rays for medical imaging,
where the risk of a possibility of radiation-induced
cancer and the risk of detecting a disease in a
patient about whom there is no objective medical
suspicion must be balanced. The most common use
Frontline Social Sciences and History Journal
FRONTLINE JOURNALS
9
of radiotherapy is the treatment of malignant
tumors. Such tissues have a greatly increased
sensitivity to radiation because they are
characterized by a high proliferation rate, and their
capacity to repair the damage produced by
irradiation is greatly diminished. The principle of
radiotherapy is that a large radiation dose is
delivered to the malignant tissue while the dose to
surrounding normal tissues is kept to a minimum.
This can be achieved, in principle, by three-
dimensional planning of the treatment combined
with use of high-energ
y X rays or γ rays
penetrating the normal tissues and depositing
their energy in inverse proportion to the density of
these tissues. However, it is extremely difficult to
spare fully the surrounding tissues, as a
consequence of the phenomenology of ionizing
radiation propagation through matter and the
inherent limitations in its definition. In practice,
therefore, a compromise must be achieved, usually
by careful three-dimensional planning of the
treatment, and the use of high-
energy X rays or γ
rays in order to spare as much as possible the
healthy surrounding tissues. The determination of
the optimal dose and fractionation schedule to be
utilized to achieve the cure of the tumor while
maintaining a low level of normal-tissue
complication is critical to the success of the
treatment.
2. Diagnostic Imaging
Diagnostic imaging refers to a wide variety of
techniques applied to visualize and create images
of the interior of a human div in order to
diagnose diseases or evaluate bodily damage. As
with the rest of the applications of nuclear physics
to medicine, diagnostic imaging techniques are
based on our understanding of the interaction
between radiation and matter. Different tissues in
the div absorb or scatter different types and
energies of radiation differently, creating a
contrast that can be sensed and imaged.
The first and most widely recognized form of
diagnostic imaging is represented by X-ray
techniques. Over a century ago, a high-energy
radiation was discovered that could penetrate soft
tissue but was absorbed by bone. This discovery
opened a new field in diagnostic medicine.
Nowadays, the most high-profile and widely
performed X-ray utilization is for assessment of
fractures. By far, the broadest application of X-ray
penetration is represented by X-ray computed
tomography (CT). This technique allows the
production of cross-sectional slab images of the
div. CT is widely and indiscriminately applied for
most areas of the div and for most diseases, being
particularly useful for the diagnosis of pulmonary
and brain diseases.
Besides CT, the other high-impact developments of
X-ray imaging technologies involve the utilization
of different soft tissue scatter contrast mechanisms
that have been employed in digital mammography
and digital tomosynthesis of the breast. These new
modalities are expected to further improve the
devoted detection and characterization of breast
cancer patients, eventually allowing the early
treatment of those patients.
3. Nuclear Medicine
Nuclear medicine
–
fusion of imaging and therapy
–
is a subdivision of medicine dealing with the
diagnostic
and
therapeutic application
of
radioactive isotopes or radiopharmaceuticals.
Firstly, radiation is emitted as gamma rays.
Diagnostic imaging in nuclear medicine is usually
performed using a single photon emission
computed tomography or positron emission
tomography. Radioactivity in diagnostic nuclear
medicine has an advantage over other imaging
techniques, such as x-ray, computed tomography,
ultrasound, and magnetic resonance imaging,
because activity concentration can be directly
connected with biological processes. Nuclear
medicine therapy is based on the destruction of
cancer cells by targeted delivery of a therapeutical
activity concentrated directly in tumors.
Radiopharmaceuticals for diagnostic imaging
usually carry long-lived isotopes, while medical
treatments are more frequently linked with
radioisotopes emitting particles with a shorter or
intermediate half-life connected with a relatively
strong radiation. Sodium iodide with radioactive
iodine is a typical radiopharmaceutical used for
imaging thyroid cancer even in small metastatic
deposits. In addition, high concentrations of iodine
in the thyroid gland are performed both for
imaging and for therapy of thyroid cancer by using
sodium iodide with a radioactive isotope.
Occasionally, a small concentration of iodine in
plasma indicating a thyroid tumor in the state of
“thyroid stripping” is used for treatment of the
accompanying hyperthyreosis.
A variety of radiopharmaceuticals and procedures
for diagnostic imaging as well as the treatment of
malignant lesions throughout the div are used in
modern nuclear medicine. Investigation of the
blood, pulmonary, cardiac, liver, renal, and skeletal
systems is utilized in diagnostic nuclear medicine.
The major applications of therapeutic nuclear
medicine are the treatment of hyperthyreosis and
Frontline Social Sciences and History Journal
FRONTLINE JOURNALS
10
radioimmunology as well as radioembolization of
liver tumors using labelled microspheres.
INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS OF RADIATION
Radiation is used in industry to ensure product
quality, reliability, and safety. Industrial activity
places an emphasis on efficiency; therefore,
methods are needed which are both effective and
fast. These aspects of industry led to the
development of unique industrial radiation
methods. There is no equivalent available using x-
rays or neutrons on the scale and speed with which
gamma rays can penetrate a material. There are
few alternatives to cobalt-60, cesium-137, or
rubidium-88 for large-scale radiation sterilization
processes. The applications of radiation in industry
are so diverse that almost any contact with an
industrial process discloses additional unique uses
of radiation. We provide only several general
outlines of industrial radiation applications to give
an overview of potential applications. A few
categories are provided in the table below. Within
each category, a few specific items are listed.
Radiography is the non-destructive testing of
structural components, packaging or shielding of
radioisotopic sources, and industrial pipelines for
defects which may cause component failure.
Radiation-emitting isotopes are gamma-ray
sources. Industrial radiography uses all types of
radiation. Radiography is conducted using gamma
or x-rays. Recently, accelerated neutrons have
been used for special applications. Radiographic
images are recorded on film, or using real-time x-
ray video, the picture can be directly displayed on
a screen. Radiographic film is so sensitive that
densities obtained are equal to the response of an
optical photomultiplier. Very small particles on the
order of 0.1 µm can be detected using high
sensitivity film. Radiography, especially gamma
radiography, is the most efficient non-destructive
method for detecting internal defects in thick steel
and other metallic components. The prohibitive
cost of x-ray machines has limited the industrial
application of x-ray radiography. With very few
exceptions,
radiography
requires
safety
procedures to avoid exposing personnel to high
radiation doses.
1. Radiography
Radiography is widely applied to non-destructive
examination of various materials, mainly metal. X-
ray and gamma-ray systems are employed. For
very small thicknesses, because of the better
detection limit, X-rays are more advantageous,
whereas for very large thicknesses a gamma-ray
source may be more attractive. In the intermediate
range there is a wide overlap. Industrial X-ray and
gamma-ray systems, with applications in different
fields, are provided by a number of manufacturers.
X-rays of energy 0.04
–
0.3 MeV are generated by
cool-tube X-ray tubes, the higher energy range
being needed for radiography of steel plates
thicker than 30 mm or with heavier alloys. Except
for high-brilliance cool-tube X-ray tubes, the
systems are not economically attractive for testing
very high energy or very thick targets because of
the low conversion efficiency.
QDT radiographs thick components (up to few
hundreds of mm) of small primary energy (0.04
MeV). Conventional electro-mechanical and digital
radio-photographic techniques are used. The
wide-angle backscattering radiography is the more
sensitive technique; however it needs positionable
small sources and correspondingly very long
acquisition time in comparison with the
expeditiously access and time reducing other
techniques, like the conventional digital X-ray and
gamma-ray radiographic methods. To test cases of
components that cannot be moved, X-ray and
neutron TV-radiographic techniques are used; the
neutron method assures greater penetration and
sensitivity than the X-ray technique. The
enclosures are made from various metals and
alloys: copper in particular, because it absorbs as
much as possible the thermal radiation; nickel and
iron for economically attractive enclosures and
cobalt for testing Fe-less components; and steel for
bake-out. The sources of function in the range
1x10
–
8 to 1x10
–
5 agents Hz
–
1 of flux.
2. Radiation Sterilization
In addition to radiation's recognized roles as a
diagnostic and quality control tool for medicine, its
ability to sterilize is essential for medical and
pharmaceutical devices and products. Many
medical and pharmaceutical devices are inserted
into sterile parts of the div where infection can
lead to serious consequences. Sterilization is thus
an essential aspect of medical and pharmaceutical
technology. Medical and pharmaceutical devices
can introduce infecting microorganisms into the
div or can be affected by such microorganisms if
these devices exceed their use date during storage.
For example, catheters inside blood vessels are
subject to blockage by microorganisms producing
clots or biofilms. Stents, together with a catheter,
are inserted into coronary arteries that are blocked
by cholesterol and fat, but the stent must not be
inoculated by microorganisms, which would cause
Frontline Social Sciences and History Journal
FRONTLINE JOURNALS
11
thrombus formation and heart attacks. Surgical
grafts are inserted into the div for a purpose but
can also be occupied and colonized by
microorganisms if the graft is not sterile. Surgical
devices such as scalpels must be kept sterile by
sterilization after each utilization. This is also an
essential aspect for soft tissues such as skin where
microorganisms can produce postoperative
infections.
Radiation is one of the few methods that can
achieve the sterilization of products in their final
packaging. Ethylene oxide and other sterilization
vapors can enter a sealed package to sterilize its
content,
but
radiation
cannot
kill
all
microorganisms. Ionizing radiation is then a well-
established
sterilization
technique,
and
approximately 48% of single-use surgical devices
are gamma sterilized. This statistic emphasizes
that sterile medical and pharmaceutical products
are generally dependent on radiation sterilization
for ensuring safety. However, the use of gamma
sterilization is gradually diminishing because
industrial
radiation
sterilization
is
being
transferred to the electron beam.
3. Thickness Gauging
Radiation has found its application in thickness
gauging of a variety of materials and their
products, with the following notable features in
thickness gauging that as an industry requirement
for speed and precision, it provides high sensitivity
on-line, faster than other methods, for continuous
thickness measurement of paper and plastic films,
it provides a range of thickness sensitivity for
metals from micro to millimetres, it has a unique
advantage in performing real time single-sided
thickness gauging of production with different
inner and outer compositions irrespective of the
product geometry and density. Radiation thickness
control gauges were originally introduced in the
1940s for use in the steel industry to establish
control of the thickness of rolled steel plate and
sheet. Following this early development, the uses
extended
into
industries
concerned
with
nonferrous materials, such as copper and
aluminum, as well as to fabricators of steel and
nonferrous metal products. Subsequently, use of
radiation gauges has extended into many different
areas of industrial processes, including those for
the paper, plastic, rubber, glass, ceramics, textiles,
and food processing and packaging. Now more
than 50 companies involved in the design,
manufacture, and calibration of radiation gauges.
Such gauges are used to measure the thickness of
foils and sheets, including aluminum, plastic,
rubber, and paper; coatings, including paper and
plastic coatings; product density, including of
concrete, ceramics, and silt; and beta backscatter
gauges for use with concrete, coal, and sand.
ENVIRONMENTAL
APPLICATIONS
OF
RADIATION
Ambient radiation represents only a minute
fraction of certain natural and artificial radiation
sources on and near the earth surface, which is
within the realm of detection of radiation
instruments. No doubt that radiation technology
plays an important role in our environment and its
application to increase food production is the most
important.
1. Radiation in Agriculture For several decades, the
use of radioactive materials and radiation
technology in agriculture is a well-established fact.
For instance, diagnosis of several tropical disease
is being done with the help of radiation markers in
plants and micro-organism, whereas biological
control of insects, bacteria and viruses is world
famous. The most frequently used isotope in the
diagnosis of various plant diseases is used with the
help of radiation markers. Several typical examples
of radioisotopes used to help diagnose plant
diseases are cited here. Root rot disease is one of
the major plant diseases and is commonly
associated with fungi found in the soil and on the
roots. Thus, the disease can be diagnosed by
introducing elements, which are used by the roots
and are transported systemically to the leaves. If
the roots are infected, the concentration in the
leaves will be small. Radioisotopes such as and are
utilized for this purpose. Other radioisotopes used
to diagnose root rot disease are, and. Additionally,
can be checked in some cases where the effect of δ
-
aminolevulinic acid on plants is being studied.
2. Radiation for Environmental Monitoring
Determining radioactivity in our surroundings by
means of monitoring devices or radiation survey
meters is not new and there are existing
geographical data. However, to measure some
radiation levels to calibrate dosimeters is more
recent. Calibration fields have been established at
several locations in the world. The increasing
activity of lowlevel radioactive waste discharge
into the environment by power and nuclear
weapons has made it essential to monitor gamma
radiation intensity over large areas, especially
those near sensitive or man-made interest.
1. Radiation in Agriculture
Diploma and crops of various types and growing
conditions respond somewhat differently to
ionizing radiation effects during growth and
Frontline Social Sciences and History Journal
FRONTLINE JOURNALS
12
development. On one hand, in the early stages of
exposure, germination speed is inhibited, while
spore germination, selected species, motile spore
production by selected species, growth at high
temperature, in the absence of nicotinamide and in
high
salt
concentrations
are
stimulated;
sporulation of some species is partly stimulated;
other species require further study in increasing
plant resistance to pathogenic fungi. Ionizing
radiation is extensively used to develop all types of
mutants of higher organisms: especially in
agriculture; plants and crops are sources of food
and feed. By selecting and describing the
parameters of the appropriate radiation source
and radiation dose, it is possible to create a large
number of specific life mutants in a short time: the
study of radiation biology in different types of
organisms, including types that are different from
each other in a phylogenetic sense.
On the basis of evaluation of sources and doses of
radiation, it is possible to irradiate seeds, callus
and embryonated cells, excess parental doses,
pollen, anthers, oocytes, tubers, shoots, etc.
Somaclon and gametoclon mutants of crops are
primarily created for accelerated selection of
mutants of plants that differ from wild types,
specifically by increasing or decreasing the size of
blooming flowers, stimulating organ formation or
physiological activity of various crop organs;
integrate the synthesis of biologically active
secondary metabolites or expand the spectrum of
produced metabolites.
2. Radiation for Environmental Monitoring
Besides its many applications in industry,
medicine, and basic research including the use of
ionizing radiation to sterilize medical instruments
and to treat cancer, the development of isotopic
tracers, or the radioactive carbon dating of
archaeological materials, radiation is also
increasingly
used
in
various
aspects
of
environmental conservation. These applications
include the detection of atmospheric, terrestrial,
and marine pollution and contamination, the
control of the release of toxic contaminants of
radioactive isotopes, the monitoring of ocean
currents, the labeling of radioactive isotopes in
aquatic ecosystems to study the resulting effects,
and the visualization of ecosystem structures.
Nuclear or isotopic methods are increasingly being
adopted in the monitoring of various contaminants
in the environment, especially those affecting the
air we breathe and the water we drink or use for
various activities. This trend is largely based on the
unique properties of many radioactive isotopes,
with large relative intensities, sufficiently long-
lived or even stable isotopes or radionuclides,
specific activity, and high sensitivity detection
systems. These properties yield perfect indicators
for the detection and control of varied
environmental pollutants. Emergency monitoring
and detection of radiation is also essential to detect
and identify threats of nuclear attack or other
terrorist activities. Facilities can measure the effect
of a nuclear attack. The 1950s and 1960s fear of
nuclear war and the long atmospheric half-life of
Radioactive
Cesium137 led to its use in studying soil erosion
and deposition.
The enduring presence of 137Cs in our ecosystem
makes it especially useful in routine hydrological
studies, and its behavior as a tracer in soil and
sediment provides accurate models of sediment
transport dynamics. Because 137Cs is rapidly
removed from volcanic ash layers deposited on the
ground by vegetation and sedimentation, it can be
used to date buried soil layers. It is also applied to
elucidate chemical and physical processes, mainly
isostatic crustal adjustments, in large floodplains
and river systems.
RADIATION SAFETY AND PROTECTION
Radiation safety, also known as radiation
protection, is defined as all the technical and
administrative measures intended to protect
individuals and populations from the danger of
ionizing radiations. Both users and nonusers of
radioactive materials must be considered.
Radiation is a companion of all radiations
applications in general, but mainly of those who
concern, or are obviously related, to human,
animal, plant, and environmental radiotoxicity. A
consequence of the incapacity to verify
experimentally the actual response of sensitive
living systems or of accumulation on an eventual
risk after chronic exposure is the very serious
charge,
scientifically
and
ethically,
and
responsibility of protecting people, animals, and
plants. In order to prevent possible hazards with
radiation utilization, authorities decide on the
basis of preventive and conservative policies on
possible nonacceptable risks, and possible
authorized activities, dose limits, surveillance, and
implementation of cost-effective shielding and
waste-removing policies.
6.1. Radiation Dosimetry The relative response of
sensitive biological systems to radiation exposure
varies greatly as a function of radiation quality. The
Frontline Social Sciences and History Journal
FRONTLINE JOURNALS
13
effective radiation dose is in everyone’s culture:
the damages from high-dose solar ultraviolet
radiation are widely reported. The unit of exposure
considers only the radiative ionization of dry air,
not the possible risks from the secondary beta and
hard X and gamma photons radiated in air, due to
radiolytic breakdown, or other radiative products,
such as ozone. Moreover, the roentgen only
accounts ionization but not the efficiency in
producing tissue damage of radiative transitions,
which may also be +1. He showed that the ratio of
dose equivalents due to gamma and clouds of beta
radiations is about 2.5. Moreover, air kerma is not
suitable as an unambiguous quantity when the
quality of photonic ionizing radiation is variable, or
when there are secondary radiative emissions,
such as alpha and beta particles. Therefore, it is
essential to combine the formalism of dose
conversion coefficients with environmental
models. The computation of the organ and tissue
doses can be performed with Monte Carlo or
adapted
microdosimetric
techniques.
A
fundamental aspect of any radiological operation,
in radiotherapy, nuclear medicine, in particular,
the utilization of radiolabeled drugs, the utilization
of radioactive sources in diagnostics, or for
palliation of palliative patients, has to take patient
and collective safety and protection.
1. Radiation Dosimetry
Radiation dosimetry was established at the early
time of health physics as the science of dose
measurement, and has been widely applied since
then toward radiation safety, control, and
protection both for work environments and for the
management of individuals. Individual external
and internal exposure assessment for persons
working with radiation, exposure surveillance for
the nearby public, inpatient and outpatient
exposure surveillance for medical radiation
patients, and exposure surveillance for aviation
crewmembers
flying
human-made
cosmic
radiation exposed high-altitude routes etc, are
some dosimetric practices implemented for
radiation safety control. The concept of radiation
dose is uniquely linked to the interaction of
ionizing radiation in biological tissues; it specifies
radiation dose in terms of detriment from
stochastic effects on exposed people and their
offspring, as well as the risks of non-stochastic
effects of radiation exposure.
Radiation dose responds to the relative biological
effectiveness for radiation types, radiation quality
for a given radiation type, and a radiation
weighting factor or quality factor for given
radiation quality and intended effect etc. As a
result, absorbed dose and equivalent dose for
deterministic effects, and effective dose for
stochastic effects, are generally appropriate and
widely implemented in radiation dosimetry of
humans, which usefully summarizes the currently
developed concepts, quantities, and units for
projecting radiation health risks; absorbed dose:
̄
D
, gray (Gy); equivalent dose:
̄
H , sievert (Sv);
effective dose:
̄
E , sievert (Sv). Other physics
dosimetric quantities and units introduced in
radiation protection may be applied to facilitate
the dose assessments in relation to the
management of specific radiation-induced health
detriment as follows: collision kerma:
̄
K, gray (Gy);
collision kerma for neutrons with energy greater
than 10 MeV:
̄
K, gray (Gy); air kerma:
̄
K, gray (Gy);
air kerma rate:
̄
K, gray per second (Gy/s);
exposure:
̄
X, coulomb per kilogram (C/kg); photon
fluence:
̄ϕ ,
per square meter (m
−2);
photon
fluence, stochastic effect of radiation exposure:
̄Φ ,
per square meter (m
−2);
personal dose
equivalent:
̄
H,
sievert
(Sv);
ambient
dose
equivalent:
̄
H, sievert (Sv); directional dose
equivalent:
̄
H, sievert (Sv); neutron fluence:
̄ϕ ,
per
square meter (m
−2);
neutron fluence, stochastic
effect of radiation exposure:
̄Φ ,
per square meter
(m
−2);
photon spect. fluence:
̄ϕ ,
per square meter
(m
−2);
photon spect. fluence, stochastic effect of
radiation exposure:
̄Φ ,
per square meter (m
−2);
neutron spect. fluence:
̄ϕ ,
per square meter (m
−2);
neutron spect. fluence (neutrons > 20 MeV):
̄Φ
, per square meter (m
−2);
radon thoron emanation
rate:
̄
E, becquerel (Bq); radioactive material
activity concentration:
̄
A, becquerel per cubic
meter (Bq/m 3); radioactive material relative
activity concentration:
̄
A , percent (%) or ratio (no
unit); aerosol-concentration in the alveolar region
of the respiratory tract:
̄
C, becquerel per cubic
meter (Bq/m 3); aerosol-concentration in the air-
interstitial lung region:
̄
C, becquerel per cubic
meter (Bq/m 3).
2. Protective Measures
Radiation protection (also known as radiological
protection) is defined as "the protection of people
from harmful effects of exposure to ionising
radiation, and the safety of source to prevent
accidental exposure." The objective is to provide
information and recommendations so that an
adequate protection of workers, the general public,
and the environment is guaranteed during
radiological procedures and practices. It is
paramount that people who made diagnosis or
treatment or those who receive diagnostic or
Frontline Social Sciences and History Journal
FRONTLINE JOURNALS
14
therapeutic radiation exposure have the minimum
possible dose.
The recommended system of radiation protection
is based on the following four principles: the
justification principle (in order to avoid cases that
the benefits do not exceed the risk; the choice of
alternative techniques which do not use ionising
radiations; the minimisation of the number of
irradiated individuals; the elimination of repeat
procedures), the dose limit principle (the limits of
the annual effective doses must not be exceeded),
the optimisation principle (the doses must be "as
low as reasonably achievable", i.e. the application
of special technical means, that is proportional to
the energy and risk reduction, must be used).
There are two basic types of protection from
ionising radiations: those referring to radiation
sources and those referring to individuals, since
the first can be used for switching off or reducing
the intensity of radiations and the second for
reducing the biological effect of ionising radiations
after irradiation. The application of radiation
protection
principles
generally
needs
a
combination of all or some of the basic measures
that are available, since the amount of the
prevention of the radiations depends on many
factors (the place of exposure, the type of radiation,
the surrounding environment, the levels of energy,
etc.).
REGULATORY FRAMEWORK FOR RADIATION
USE
Radiation is used in a variety of applications
predominantly in the medical, industrial, research
and security fields. Due to the human exposure to
potentially hazardous sources of radiation, there
needs to be a regulatory framework that is
followed in order to minimize the health effects
both to the worker and the general public. National
and
international
governing
bodies
have
established guidelines or recommendations that
countries adopt in their own national regulations
and how they implement these recommendations.
These recommendations are based on the events
that have occurred in history regarding radiation
exposure and adverse health effects observed. The
following section provides a brief overview of the
international and national guidelines, background
and history regarding radiological regulations.
Part of the motivation of compiling this
information is to allow others to understand some
of the rationale for the establishment of various
criteria and standards.
The responsibility for protecting the public from
health hazards associated with the use of atomic
energy and radioactive materials was delegated to
the United States Atomic Energy Commission by
the United States Congress as a section of the
Federal Agency Act. An early temporary AEC
radiation safety guideline recommended exposure
limits of ionizing radiation. Over time upgrades
were made to these limits. Earliest comments that
these exposure limits were excessive were made in
the late 1950s. In the early 1990s the AEC adopted
recommendations of the National Academy of
Sciences, in essence establishing new standards
based on the BAC, in the place of the AEC original
standards based on early NBS calculations as
amended by Harington. Indeed, it is the same basic
recommendations and rationale that are now
embodied in the 1993 recommendations of the
International
Commission
on
Radiological
Protection that propose yet lower exposure doses
from all man-made radiation sources combined.
1. International Guidelines
This chapter reviews international and national
regulations concerning radiation applications in
human subjects. It describes guidelines that
pertain to research and diagnostic procedures,
assessments of patient risk, and recommendations
to maintain radiation exposure as low as
reasonably achievable, among others. In the field of
radiotherapy, strictly focused on cancer patients,
the regulatory burden is considerably increased
due to patient protection being considered as very
substantial. Furthermore, international and
national
guidelines
specifically
made
for
radiotherapy are precisely outlined. Though many
national
regulations
on
radiology
and
radiotherapy
are
derived
mainly
from
international guidelines, the focus of these
guidelines differs substantially. Commissioning
these guidelines is a consequence of the continuing
demands of radiation use in these fields. This
chapter describes them briefly.
Limitations on radiation use are based on ethics.
The ethics of radiation use has been reviewed in
earlier chapters. Virtually all radiological and
radiotherapy applications are focused on human
beings. Radiological procedures represent part of
the diagnostic process directed to perfecting
clinical practice. Benefits for patients or for the
promotion of public health should result from
compliance with recommended actions. It would
be unethical to use radiation to verify a diagnosis
where a non-ionizing method might provide a
viable solution.
Frontline Social Sciences and History Journal
FRONTLINE JOURNALS
15
2. National Regulations
Most countries regulate the use of ionizing
radiation through specific laws; however, in some
countries, these laws may be included in general
laws regarding nuclear energy. With a few
exceptions, such as Mexico, which has its
regulation on the use of radiation and radioactive
sources included in its atomic law, these national
laws do not contain detailed regulations about the
application in practice of the provisions of the laws.
Broadly speaking, national laws generally regulate
the responsibilities and authority of the radiation
protection authorities, the establishment of safety
and security conditions, the licensing and control
of the use of radiation for its respective
applications, as well as penalties for violations of
regulations. Most national regulations delegate the
authority to establish more detailed requirements
to safety authorities, who are also responsible for
their implementation. These requirements may be
included in technical bulletins or additional
detailed regulations, depending on the country.
While the actual gravity and detail of the national
laws and regulations vary greatly between
countries, there are common elements that are
present to varying degrees. Generally, national
laws or regulations appoint a regulatory authority
responsible for the evaluation and approval of
plans and technical specifications related to the
use of radiation.
Although regulations can differ significantly, in
most
cases
regulations
generally
have
requirements that on applicable practices prior to
their use, a notice of no-objection will be issued
only when the regulations are met; they will also
be licensed through a permit, which will be based
on the practice meeting the requirements. These
permits will apply for certain radiation doses; the
devices will have specific labels, and there will be
periodic renewals of licenses and certificates for
the personnel related to the practice. There are
also generally requirements regarding monitoring
and control, and a record must be kept regarding
the use of the devices and the doses delivered;
there will be sanctions for non-compliance.
FUTURE
TRENDS
IN
RADIATION
APPLICATIONS
Determining future trends in the areas of radiation
technologies and applications is challenging. This
is particularly true in the energy medicine and
energetics areas. These areas have the least
practical applications and scientific research to
date. There are great hopes that in these areas, as
well as in the rest of practical energy medicine,
there will be a rapid increase in applications and
relevant research over the coming decade. Here,
we present several examples of potential future
applications in more mature fields of radiation
applications, such as food and materials
decontamination, cross linking, or dark field
microscopy.
Emerging Technologies The future of food and
material decontamination technologies most likely
lies in the development of very compact, low-
power, very versatile devices. The development of
portable, practical devices for environmental
monitoring is important. It may have far-reaching
implications in numerous aspects of everyday life,
ranging from security considerations to possible
new,
innovative
medical
and
biological
applications.
Another
interesting
emerging
concept in the area of energy medicine relates to
invisibility. This topic is rarely discussed and is
perhaps more philosophy than science. It is,
however, clear that an attempt to apply the laws of
quantum
information
processing
in
such
applications as communication, amplification, and
enhanced imaging could also become an
interesting direction of research in the future.
Innovative Practices In energetics, several
companies successfully manufacture and sell
energy stimulators. These devices are based on the
saturating method of induced energy effects on
matter. Energy medicine may develop and apply
new energy methods elsewhere. One interesting
new component could become information in the
form of combined holograms as the principal
carriers of information and biophysical signals
promoting the stability and homogeneity of
bacterium and phytoplankton populations and
preventing the rapid proliferation of viruses and
unsuitable bacteria.
1. Emerging Technologies
Emerging
technologies,
such
as
quantum
computing and accelerated artificial intelligence,
have the potential to dramatically enhance the
current tools used to study fundamental radiation
interactions. Whereas previous generations of
computing have relied on binary logic, quantum
mechanics enables quantum computing to perform
certain tasks at incredibly faster speeds than are
currently possible. For example, the chemical
reaction rates critical to radiation chemistry, but
still poorly understood, may be gauged in real-
time. Artificial neural nets have recently gained
favor for many applications, including reducing
uncertainty in measured cross sections for indirect
radiative
capture
reactions.
These
rapid
Frontline Social Sciences and History Journal
FRONTLINE JOURNALS
16
developments in computational tools will be
paralleled by accelerated machine learning based
numerical methods, which have recently gained
favor throughout numerical solutions to partial
differential equations. As physics-informed neural
networks are combined with physics-based
numerical solvers, validating and reducing
uncertainties in radiative process cross sections
will become increasingly feasible. Novel high
power continuous wave femtosecond lasers have
recently been shown to dramatically enhance
spontaneous emission control. As experimental
capabilities in this area rapidly improve, the
prospects for radiation experimentation in this
area may be revolutionized.
Innovations in radiation experimental and
measurement methods will accompany these
revolutionary developments in computing and
numerical methods. Presently, experimentalists
are limited by issues with detector resolutions. As
detectors and scintillator materials change on the
nanoscale, future experiments will be able to take
advantage of exciting new measurement concepts
enabled by increasingly keyed particle detection.
These experimental and detector advances will
enable finer resolution measurements of de-
excitation gamma photon emission via delayed
gamma emission methods. With the future
combination of these confinement methods and
ongoing development of quantum detectors, which
have been shown to measure optical wavelength
light with single photon sensitivity, even more
precise measurements of keV and MeV level
gamma radiation will become possible.
2. Innovative Practices
Innovation in workplace practices engages
employees and is essential to implement scientific
and technological advances. Key components of
using radiation technologies, like robotics, process
automation, and artificial intelligence, are practice
innovation. Empowering employees in new
advanced radiation technology adoption, research
partnerships, and workforce development enables
further application of existing and development of
new radiation processes. These include advanced
manufacturing capabilities that
have less
environmental impact, such as new composite
materials and additive manufacturing capabilities
that enable functionally optimized efficient design.
Where functionally optimized material solutions
for specific applications do not already exist, users
of additive manufacturing may unleash a flood of
part designs that expose the limits of known
manufacturing capabilities and accumulated long-
term actual operating service experience. For
those applications where operation has shown that
lifetime service may be influenced by defects or in-
service exposure, existing tests for manufactured
parts used in other industries are normally
ignored. Hence, they need to be updated to identify
defects or localized changes that could affect the
reliability of a specific part design. Many critical
additive
manufacturing
applications
for
components in national security and defense
missions, as well as other industries in commercial
and civilian missions, are designing with long
predictable lifetimes. Recent lifetime predictability
successes of library data for radiation sensitivity in
parts for space applications illustrate how patterns
that reappear with lifetime can capture past
failures. Such libraries of accelerated radiation
hardening process decisions, design options, and
technology development can be adapted to other,
possibly
radiation-influenced,
controlled
environments.
ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN RADIATION USE
There are ethical considerations about radiation
use in medicine, primarily the balance between the
benefits gained and risks incurred. Radiation
should not be used without justification and
patients must give informed consent. There are no
laws against exposing people or the environment
to ionizing radiation, but most countries do so
following recommendations and other guidelines
set by local authorities. Using theoretical rather
than real risk estimates gives more important
guidelines. Following these recommendations
reduces the theoretical lifetime excess cancer risk
for the general population from medical exposure
to less than 1 in 1,000.
The first ethical consideration about radiation use
in medicine is that a patient must give consent for
x-ray examinations and treatments, and for other
types of ionizing radiation. Informed consent, at
least for elective procedures, is a legal requirement
in most countries. Procedures should be justified
with respect to natural progression, and estimates
provided of the chance of disease in an irradiated
population versus those who are not irradiated.
Justification should also compare the health
benefits to the risks of exposing an ill patient to
ionizing radiation. Risks taken from a patient's
own population would be 2 to 20 times larger than
the normal risk estimates. Although informed
consent for radiation-based diagnosis and therapy
has been called for by some, this has not been
Frontline Social Sciences and History Journal
FRONTLINE JOURNALS
17
universally accepted as a legal requirement.
1. Patient Consent
Balancing the risks and benefits of radiation use
can be difficult. Invasive procedures such as
surgery are commonly agreed upon by patients
and the medical team. Generally, patients will
undertake a surgery, recognizing the severity of its
repercussions should it not take place, such as the
loss of limbs or other vital functions. However,
non-invasive and non-painful procedures involved
in diagnostic imaging with radiation such as X-ray,
CT, and fluoroscopy, are often outrightly rejected
by patients, who do not recognize the need for
these procedures. Modern-day diagnoses may
seem trivial at times, but diagnostic imaging may
unveil a critical finding, such as an aortic dissection
that can then be intervened upon surgically.
Patients who are unwilling to undergo diagnostic
imaging when strongly urged by their medical
team may be disregarding consensus practice
guidelines and could be held responsible for
serious adverse events.
Assistance with obtaining informed consent is
considered a crucial responsibility of the medical
team. Informed consent is the process of not only
relaying essential information to a patient and
making sure that they are sufficiently aware to
make an informed decision, but also to respect the
preferences, values, culture, and beliefs of the
patient in the process. It is helpful to imagine that
any decision involving a patient's health and well-
being must be overseen together with that
particular patient. This includes the decisions of an
appropriate imaging test at the present stage, the
outcomes
and
subsequent
decision-making
process, and the advantages and drawbacks
involved. Without a doubt, imaging tests carry
risks associated with radiation exposure. To
ensure that the patient is protected to the greatest
extent
possible,
imaging
guidelines
and
recommendations need to be coupled with patient
discussion to inform them of the potential effects
of the procedure.
2. Environmental Impact
Radiation has multiple environmental impacts
during its production, application, and disposal, as
well as its susceptibility to cause radiation
pollution. Several natural and anthropogenically
produced radiation sources could produce
radiation pollution that could irreversibly harm
innocuous, living, and non-living components of
the environmental ecosystem. However, the
neglect of radiation pollution is evident, featuring
relatively little literature, research, and depth.
Whether the environmental impact of radiation is
disclaimed, the impact is beyond doubt and
possibly beyond scope. For the present study, the
environmental impacts of radiation in the nuclear
production of the atomic bomb and its use during
the nuclear war are described in the context of
ethical issues.
Radiation impacts biodiversity and affects non-
living and living biological entities, irrespective of
dosage; although the extent of impact varies. Non-
living biological entities impacted by radiation are
clouds, soil, air, and water; causing acid rain, forest
fires, erosion, damage to astro-chemicals, and
aggregates, as well as aquatic and freshwater
damage via thermal shock. On living biological
entities, the radiation impact includes radioactive
resuspension, wildfires, microbial cultures, algae,
fungi, plants, animals, and humans. The harmful
effects of radiation on the ecology of plants include
inhibited growth, delayed seed germination,
damage to the root system, morphology, and
flowering time, death of apical meristems,
oxidative stress, as well as altered chlorophyll
content,
photosynthesis,
malondialdehyde
content, and catalase activities. The effects of
radiation on animals include loss of wrists and
knees, premature birth, altered radiosensitivity,
immune effects, malignancy for leukemia, sarcoma,
breast cancer, and altered tissue repair in the living
matter. The effects of radiation on people include
elevated psychosomatic problems, stressful
thoughts and actions, enhanced psychological and
neurotic disturbances, and increased risk of
cerebrovascular disease mortality; increasing the
need for environmental pollution consultations for
abnormal environmental changes.
CASE STUDIES
The appended bibliography highlights a sampling
of published papers that describe interesting
stories and results. The papers cover a wide range
of topics. In this section, a few are highlighted.
Several papers covering the medical applications
of the technology were co-authored with a board-
certified radiation oncologist, who also serves as a
clinical professor of radiation oncology. He is the
editor-in-chief of a journal and was editor-in-chief
of another journal for many years.
1. Successful Medical Treatments
As an example of an application of the technology
within one of the priority disease areas identified
by a group, the use of ionizing radiation to treat
major depressive disorder is covered. The story of
the first patient to be treated is presented in detail,
and somewhat derivative treatments of additional
Frontline Social Sciences and History Journal
FRONTLINE JOURNALS
18
patients are summarized. The patient presented
was actually treated outside formal clinical trial
design. Of interest, but not presented, is that
another patient at the same facility was treated
within formal clinical trial design before the first
patient received his second treatment. Chronic,
treatment-resistant major depressive disorder is
severely disabling and may result in excessively
high mortality rates due to suicide or medical
comorbidities.
2. Industrial Innovations
Of interest to engineers and scientists engaged in
industrial radiation processing are accounts of
products involving the use of radiation to achieve
results that cannot be attained at reasonable cost
or sufficiently without damage by any competing
processes. Some inventions are now patented
based on new applications and technical methods
that have evolved from pilot plant work and
research funded by governmental and industrial
sponsors over a period of decades. Microbial
radiation sterilization is now commonplace, but it
was a relatively new early application that helped
convince authorities to approve the use of
radiation for this purpose.
1. Successful Medical Treatments
Radiation medicine refers to the application of
radiation and nuclear technology to the diagnosis,
treatment, prevention, or alleviation of human
disease.
This
practice
encompasses
the
development and production of radioactive
pharmaceutical products for use in nuclear
medicine and radiopharmaceutical therapy and
diagnostic imaging and also the development and
application of innovative technologies and
techniques in radiation diagnostics, radionuclide
therapy of heart, thyroid, liver, bone and other
diseases,
radiation
oncology,
radiation
dermatology, and radiation hematology, as well as
radiation protection of patients undergoing
treatment. The "return on investment" of the
nuclear and radiation medicine field can be
measured by the invaluable and critical
contribution these fields make in the alleviation of
human suffering and the considerable economic
returns to society.
Nuclear technology and radiation applications in
medicine generated significant benefits for the
diagnosis and treatment of disease throughout the
20th century and into the 21st century. Ongoing
and future developments in both basic science and
applied research provide even more exciting and
expanding opportunities for these fields to provide
life-saving breakthroughs during the coming
decades. The responsibility of the nuclear
medicine community is to capitalize on existing
opportunities and develop new ones to ensure that
the unique capabilities of nuclear technology fulfill
their intended role.
2. Industrial Innovations
From the very beginning, the work of the atomic
scientists differed in important ways from that of
other researchers who had preceded and later
accompanied them in exploring the nuclear world.
The possibilities for scientific progress in their
work were obvious but the potential for new or
improved industrial processes or products was
perhaps even greater
—
both calorically and
economically. The enormous energy density of
atomic nuclei and the potential for tapping that
energy through nuclear fission or fusion provided
the scientific and technological basis for the new
industries of nuclear technology. But, the
particulars of these nuclear processes were unique
and their implementation required both scientific
and engineering talent in order to permit
systematic exploitation of their potential in such a
way as to provide electric power or specialized
radioisotopes for use in medicine or the
commercial sector.
The atomic scientists and their successors made
pioneering technical advancements, laying open
vast new industrial domains where nuclear
processes were developed for such diverse
purposes as radiographing welds and pipelines,
using particle accelerators for medical and
industrial inspections, making isotopes for fertility
control, using radiation to enhance food safety and
eliminate disease vectors, and sterilizing hospital
and commercial items with radiation. How
carefully all of these products and processes were
developed
and
how
verifiably
safe
and
productively efficient they were as compared to
industry’s previous methods is illustrated by the
fact that some of them have now been widely used
for decades. The challenges facing engineers
engaged in these developments have been as
unique as the nuclear processes themselves.
Ironically, some of these challenges have been
facilitated by the very special behavior associated
with radioactive processes which result in
phenomena such as atomic clocks capable of
measuring time accurately over long durations.
CHALLENGES IN RADIATION APPLICATIONS
Although accelerator technology has been steadily
advancing, it is still not yet fully ready for beaming
Frontline Social Sciences and History Journal
FRONTLINE JOURNALS
19
high daylight fluxes of ions and protons that could
be employed for exploration of the Moon and Mars
or to enable, exceptionally useful on our planet,
emission of muon neutrinos at the energies yet
unreachable by other means. Furthermore, our
planet’s
sustainable
development
would
considerably profit from better nuclear waste
management, e.g. transmutation of long-lived
isotopes. As an accelerator could be devoted to
neutrinos production with benefits for particle
astrophysics, a tabletop classical accelerator could
be used for transmutation. It could provide
protons and ions for intense light beams, of a kind
already in reach of laser without yet following
particle acceleration. During the last six decades,
classical accelerators dedicated to or supporting
radiation applications have demonstrated great
improvements and achieved prestige. Colleges,
military and industry, health and nuclear medicine,
metrology,
materials
science,
radiation
technologies, radiobiology and sanitary hygiene
share this capital, and ask for more. They expect
from the scientists and engineers involved the
radiation generation and the interaction with
matter to be mastered, allowing the interaction
processes and the range of the background
radiation levels to be simulated and predicted, and
the requested targets to receive the desired
neutralizing, sterilizing, or disrupting treatments.
In this regime, production is fast and efficient. On
the one hand, extended use of radiation in our daily
life, either for economy development or for solving
environmental problems, still faces some
developments, technologically or politically,
counter-reasons or difficulties. On the other hand,
progresses in terms of mastering radiation
applications will certainly promote broader
acceptance
and
enable
wider
choice
of
applications.
1. Public Perception
Radiation has a rich and diverse range of
applications that range from daily activities such as
purchasing watches and alarm clocks to more
sophisticated uses in medicine, environmental
studies, archaeology, security, as well as studying
the primordial universe. Many entities are
involved such as research centers, universities,
laboratories, hospitals, and companies, and yet
radiation applications are still today not
economically
self-sufficient
nor
widely
disseminated. Several reasons could explain this
status, but two in particular should be expected;
the first is technological limitations, and the
second is public perception, which has a great
influence on political decisions regarding funding.
Radiation applications are therefore not as popular
as they should be. For example, most people know
about medicine uses, as hospitals and clinics are
easily accessible and very present in society.
Nevertheless, the general public tend to identify
radiation for diagnosis in X-rays or treatment in
radiation therapy. Even among those exposed to
radiation in medical diagnosis, very few are aware
that other applications exist. Applications such as
cancer treatment, which affect a great number of
people through contact, radiation and are also
relatively well-known, still see a lower tolerance
for radiation in treatment than any other invasive
treatment. Restricted to medical applications, the
public perception of radiation use
–
as well as the
associated risks
–
is very limited. But radiation
applications don’t stop at diagnosis or treatment of
diseases. Design for the manufacture of a great
variety of medical instruments requires expertise
in radiation applications, as do industrial uses
requiring quality control. Research in various
fields also requires advanced knowledge in
radiation use.
2. Technological Limitations
Although radiation has become an important and
necessary area of technology application, from
imaging to electricity generation to cancer
treatment, there are several areas where new
technology is still required to become a productive
application. These include, but are not limited to,
the following: (1) alpha radioisotope electricity
generation; (2) measurements of mass and
concentration of liquids; (3) gains in sensitivity
and price for radiation detectors; (4) new isotope
production; (5) remote detecting and identifying
radioactivity; (6) remote survey and pump down
for cm to m scale radioactive items; (7) multiplying
the signal from a surface contamination detector to
obtain a measurement of concern; (8) radioactive
waste processing and reduction; (9) thin section
and high resolution gamma imaging; (10) air
pollution measurements; (11) nanometer flow
rates at small scale; (12) neutrinoless double beta
decay; (13) nuclear thermal propulsion; (14) and
gamma radiography and geothermometry. This list
is selective, and there are certainly many other
uses of radioisotopes where enhanced technology
could greatly improve the performance and/or
cost. Moreover, and more exciting to the impatient
inventor, several of these problems
–
such as
improved portable and hand-held instruments for
in-line help in additive machining
–
and portable
sensors for monitoring particulate pollution from
Frontline Social Sciences and History Journal
FRONTLINE JOURNALS
20
mega-fires and volcanoes - have immediate and
near term urgent requests because the needs are
already well established and have not been met.
CONCLUSION
Radiation Applications has, since 2004, provided a
selection of topical collections that preserve the
work of eminent scientists in the fields of radiation
and radiobiology. The current forty-two title series
has supervised six reprints and many substantial
collections. Underlying our activities was the
desire that the originals, most of which were
published in journals with more specialized
readerships, would be available to a broader
audience. Accordingly, we aimed to provide theme-
based collections in accessible disciplines,
pertinent to both academic scientists and those
engaged in the application of their work. These
topics include reviews, original work, theoretical
and experimental research, and applications;
interdisciplinary connections are encouraged. The
advances in paradigm application that we focus on
include, in no particular order: advances in both
the theoretical and experimental support of MR
methodology developments; advances in the use of
MRS and MEGA-PRESS spectroscopy; advances in
the demonstration of the neurochemical correlates
of behavior; which includes advances in
demonstrating
connections
and
alternative
accounts that are sensitive to the microstructure
and time course of behavior; advances combining
DTI
or
fiber
tracking
techniques
with
spectroscopic correlates; advances validating
animal models; and advances in animal behavioral
studies that really involve the analytical power of
in
vivo
spectroscopic
analysis,
putting
spectroscopic wisdom to work in a real word
context. These advances are drawn from a number
of thematic areas: the development of more
specialized
hardware
and
software;
the
incorporation of other imaging modalities and
analytical approaches; the creative application of
NMR research, especially DTI and spectroscopy, to
neuroethology; and experimental studies that
validate the efficacy and sensibility of decisions
that have been made concerning animal
neuroimaging while also enhancing the behavioral
perspectives that guide such decision-making
processes.
REFERENCE
Katsumura, Y., & Kudo, H. (2018). Radiation
applications, an advanced course in nuclear
engineering.
