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Oceanic Crossroads: The Maritime Legacy of Nusantara's Hindu-Buddhist
Kingdoms and Pre-Colonial States
Dr. Arjuna Santoso
Department of History, Universitas Indonesia, Jakarta, Indonesia
Prof. Mei Ling Tan
Asian Studies Program, National University of Singapore, Singapore
A R T I C L E I N f
О
Article history:
Submission Date: 03 May 2025
Accepted Date: 02 June 2025
Published Date: 01 July 2025
VOLUME:
Vol.05 Issue07
Page No. 1-5
A B S T R A C T
Nusantara, the vast archipelago of Southeast Asia, has historically been
defined by its intricate relationship with the sea. This article explores the
profound maritime legacy of the region, tracing its evolution from the era
of Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms through to the pre-colonial period. It
examines how seafaring traditions, strategic trade routes, and powerful
maritime empires shaped the political, economic, and cultural landscape of
Nusantara. By analyzing the pivotal role of the sea as a unifier and a conduit
for exchange, this study highlights the enduring significance of maritime
history in understanding the identity and development of the archipelago
before the advent of European colonial powers.
Keywords:
Nusantara maritime history, Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms,
pre-colonial Southeast Asia, Srivijaya Empire, Majapahit maritime
power, Indian Ocean trade networks, Maritime Silk Road, ancient
Indonesian seafaring, cultural exchange in maritime Asia, archipelagic
state formation, Buddhism in Southeast Asia, Hinduism in maritime
Southeast Asia, Austronesian navigation.
INTRODUCTION
The concept of Nusantara, often referring to the
Indonesian archipelago and its surrounding
maritime domain, is intrinsically linked to its
oceanic character [23]. Far from being a mere
geographical descriptor, the term encapsulates a
historical reality where the seas were not barriers
but vital arteries connecting diverse communities
and fostering dynamic interactions [9, 15]. The
maritime history of Southeast Asia, particularly
Nusantara, is a rich tapestry woven with threads of
ancient seafaring prowess, flourishing trade
networks, and the rise and fall of powerful
thalassocracies [8, 26, 41, 49]. This study delves
into the foundational role of the maritime domain
in shaping Nusantara from its earliest recorded
Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms to the eve of European
colonization.
For centuries, the waterways of Nusantara served
as a crucible for cultural exchange, economic
prosperity, and political dominance [32, 54]. The
region's strategic location at the crossroads of
major international trade routes, connecting the
Indian Ocean to the South China Sea, propelled its
maritime states to prominence [11, 54].
Understanding this deep-seated maritime heritage
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is crucial for appreciating the complex historical
trajectories of the various polities that emerged
across the archipelago [6, 47]. This article aims to
reconstruct the narrative of Nusantara's maritime
past, emphasizing the contributions of its
indigenous seafarers and the transformative
impact of its oceanic environment on state
formation and societal development in the Hindu-
Buddhist and pre-colonial eras.
METHODOLOGY
This study employs a historical analysis
methodology, drawing upon a wide range of
secondary sources to reconstruct the maritime
history
of
Nusantara.
The
approach
is
interdisciplinary,
integrating
insights
from
maritime
historiography,
archaeology,
and
cultural studies to provide a comprehensive
understanding of the subject [5, 8]. Emphasis is
placed on identifying key historical periods,
significant maritime powers, and the mechanisms
of trade and cultural diffusion that characterized
the region's oceanic interactions.
The research synthesizes information from
various scholarly works, including those focusing
on early civilizations, Austronesian migrations, the
development of maritime trade routes, and the
political economies of Hindu-Buddhist and pre-
colonial states [12, 39, 44, 55]. Specific attention is
given to studies that highlight the indigenous
agency in shaping maritime networks, rather than
solely focusing on external influences. The analysis
also considers the conceptualization of the sea as a
unifying element in the region's historical
narrative [9, 21]. By collating and interpreting
diverse historical accounts, this methodology
seeks
to
illuminate
the
continuity
and
transformation of Nusantara's maritime identity
over several centuries.
RESULTS
The maritime history of Nusantara is deeply rooted
in the ancient seafaring traditions of the
Austronesian peoples. These early inhabitants,
originating from Taiwan and spreading across the
Indo-Malaysian Archipelago, possessed advanced
navigational skills and boat-building technologies,
enabling them to traverse vast oceans and
establish widespread settlements [6, 12, 46]. Their
migrations laid the groundwork for future
maritime networks and the development of a
distinct maritime culture across the archipelago
[6].
The Rise of Hindu-Buddhist Maritime Kingdoms
The advent of Hindu-Buddhist influences from
India beginning around the 1st century CE
coincided with the emergence of powerful
maritime kingdoms that leveraged their strategic
positions along vital trade routes [11, 44]. These
kingdoms were not merely coastal settlements but
true thalassocracies, whose power and wealth
were fundamentally derived from their control
over sea lanes and port cities [39].
Srivijaya, flourishing from the 7th to the 13th
centuries, stands as a prime example of a dominant
Hindu-Buddhist maritime empire. Based in
Sumatra, Srivijaya controlled the crucial Straits of
Malacca and Sunda, acting as an entrepôt for trade
between India and China [11, 54]. Its influence
extended through maritime power, facilitating the
exchange of goods such as spices, gold, and exotic
forest products, alongside cultural and religious
ideas [11, 35]. The prosperity of Srivijaya was
directly tied to its ability to maintain safe passage
for merchant vessels and to manage the flow of
goods through its ports [39].
Following Srivijaya, the Majapahit Empire, based
in Java from the 13th to the 16th centuries, also
asserted significant maritime power. While often
associated with its agrarian base, Majapahit's
reach across the archipelago was largely
dependent on its naval capabilities and control
over maritime trade [20, 47]. Its influence
encompassed numerous islands and coastal areas,
demonstrating a continued understanding of the
sea as a unifying and empowering force [32, 47].
The concept of "Nusantara" itself, meaning "outer
islands" or "archipelago," gained prominence
during the Majapahit era, reflecting a political
vision centered on maritime connectivity [23].
These kingdoms played a crucial role in the early
Maritime Silk Road, connecting Southeast Asia
with distant civilizations in South Asia, China, and
even the Middle East [11, 54, 56]. The trade
involved not only luxury goods but also the
exchange of technologies, religious practices, and
political ideologies, contributing to the diverse
cultural mosaic of Nusantara [40, 54].
Strategic Ports and Trade Networks
Throughout this period, strategic port cities
emerged as vibrant centers of commerce and
cultural interaction [15, 39, 57]. Places like Oc Eo
(in modern Vietnam, with connections to the
region) and various ports in the Malay Peninsula
and Sumatra became vital nodes in the extensive
maritime trade network [11, 35, 57]. These ports
were not just places for loading and unloading
goods; they were cosmopolitan hubs where
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merchants from various cultures converged,
leading to significant cultural syncretism [40]. The
demand for Nusantara's unique products,
particularly spices, fueled this extensive trade,
attracting merchants from afar [54].
The administrative structures of these maritime
states were often geared towards regulating and
benefiting from this trade. They established
systems for taxation, port management, and naval
protection to ensure the smooth flow of commerce
[39]. The ability to control and protect these trade
routes was paramount to their survival and
prosperity.
Transition to the Pre-Colonial Era
As the Hindu-Buddhist empires waned, new
maritime
powers,
including
early
Islamic
sultanates, rose to prominence, often inheriting
and expanding upon the established maritime
traditions [28, 50]. By the 15th century, states like
Malacca emerged as a dominant trading power,
controlling the critical choke point of the Malacca
Strait [19]. Malacca's success was built on its
strategic location, efficient administration, and its
role as a key entrepôt for regional and
international trade, attracting merchants from
across Asia [27]. Other important maritime centers
included Brunei [53] and Sulu [51], which also
thrived on trade and maintained extensive
maritime connections.
This pre-colonial period saw a continuation of the
strong maritime identity, with local rulers and
communities deeply integrated into the oceanic
economy. The arrival of European powers, notably
the Portuguese in the early 16th century, marked a
significant turning point, as they sought to seize
control of these lucrative trade networks [10, 14,
16, 19, 48]. The European quest for direct access to
spices and control over maritime routes ultimately
led to the decline of independent Nusantara
maritime powers and the onset of the colonial era
[19, 29, 48].
DISCUSSION
The findings underscore that the maritime domain
was not merely a backdrop but the very foundation
upon which the civilizations of Nusantara were
built and sustained from the Hindu-Buddhist era to
the pre-colonial period. The sea acted as a unifying
force, connecting disparate islands and fostering a
shared identity that transcended geographical
fragmentation [9, 38]. The concept of "Nusantara"
itself, as highlighted by Evers, is a testament to this
maritime-centric
worldview,
where
the
archipelago was perceived as a cohesive entity
linked by water, rather than separated by it [23].
The success of empires like Srivijaya and Majapahit
was directly contingent on their mastery of
maritime technologies and their ability to project
power and control trade routes across vast oceanic
distances [32, 39]. These states were not just land-
based powers with naval arms; they were
fundamentally maritime entities whose political
and economic structures were intricately tied to
their oceanic reach. The vibrant port cities that
dotted the archipelago served as crucial nodes in
these networks, facilitating not only economic
exchange but also profound cultural and religious
syncretism [15, 40]. The movement of goods,
people, and ideas across the seas led to a rich blend
of indigenous traditions with Hindu, Buddhist, and
later, Islamic influences [28, 40, 50].
The transition from Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms to
pre-colonial sultanates demonstrates a continuity
in the region's maritime focus. While political and
religious landscapes shifted, the strategic
importance of controlling sea lanes and engaging
in maritime trade remained paramount [27, 54].
This enduring maritime legacy contrasts sharply
with the later colonial period, where European
powers often sought to reorient trade flows and
impose land-centric administrative structures,
sometimes disrupting established indigenous
maritime systems [3, 29, 48].
The study of Nusantara's maritime history is vital
for a holistic understanding of Southeast Asian
civilization. It provides a counter-narrative to
land-centric
historical
interpretations,
emphasizing the agency of local populations in
shaping their own destinies through their
relationship with the sea [6, 8]. The resilience and
adaptability of Nusantara's maritime communities,
from ancient Austronesian seafarers to the pre-
colonial traders, highlight a profound connection
to the ocean that continues to resonate in the
region today [6].
CONCLUSION
The maritime history of Nusantara, from the
Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms to the pre-colonial era,
reveals a civilization deeply intertwined with its
oceanic environment. The seas were not merely
routes for passage but the very foundation of
political power, economic prosperity, and cultural
exchange. Early Austronesian seafaring laid the
groundwork for sophisticated maritime networks,
which were then capitalized upon by powerful
Hindu-Buddhist empires like Srivijaya and
Majapahit. These thalassocracies controlled vital
trade routes, fostering cosmopolitan port cities
and facilitating the flow of goods, ideas, and
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religions across the archipelago and beyond. Even
as political and religious landscapes evolved, the
strategic importance of maritime dominance
persisted into the pre-colonial sultanates. This
enduring legacy underscores the critical role of the
sea in shaping Nusantara's identity, demonstrating
how its inhabitants navigated, connected, and
thrived within their aquatic world long before the
arrival of European colonial powers. The maritime
heritage of Nusantara remains a testament to the
ingenuity and resilience of its people, whose
history is, at its core, a history of the ocean.
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