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31
The Formation and Teaching Methods of Educational Institutions for
Visually Impaired Children in Uzbekistan (1925–1990)
Zukhra Kabulova
PhD student, National University of Uzbekistan, Tashkent, Uzbekistan
A R T I C L E I N f
О
Article history:
Submission Date: 31 March 2025
Accepted Date: 29 April 2025
Published Date: 31 May 2025
VOLUME:
Vol.05 Issue05
Page No. 31-36
DOI: -
https://doi.org/10.37547/social-
A B S T R A C T
This article offers a comprehensive historical analysis of the formation and
evolution of educational institutions for visually impaired children in
Soviet Uzbekistan during the period from 1925 to 1990. It investigates how
the Soviet state’s ideological c
ommitment to social equality and labor
participation shaped the development of specialized educational
structures for blind children in the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic (Uzbek
SSR). Drawing on unpublished archival materials, official Soviet
educational directives, and contemporaneous pedagogical publications,
the study reconstructs the four principal stages of institutionalization: the
initial establishment phase (1925
–
1940), expansion during and after
World War II (1941
–
1955), professionalization and curriculum reform
(1956
–
1970), and full systematization and consolidation (1971
–
1990).
Special attention is given to the emergence of defectology as a foundational
science in Soviet special education and its role in informing teaching
methodologies, teacher training, and the design of tactile and auditory
instructional tools. The study also addresses how broader socio-political
transformations, such as the post-Stalinist liberalization and the
development of national education systems within the Soviet framework,
influenced pedagogical approaches for visually impaired children. The
findings demonstrate that although the Uzbek SSR operated within the
centralized Soviet model, local adaptations emerged in response to
cultural, linguistic, and infrastructural particularities. This article
contributes to the global history of special education by providing new
insights into how socialist states conceptualized disability, education, and
inclusion during the twentieth century.
Keywords:
Visually impaired children, Soviet education, special
pedagogy, Uzbekistan, Braille, defectology, inclusive education, archival
research, socialist disability policy.
INTRODUCTION
In Soviet Central Asia, the education of children
with disabilities, including those who were blind or
visually impaired, was profoundly influenced by
the overarching ideological commitment of the
Soviet state to principles of social equity, universal
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literacy, and productive labor. From the inception
of Soviet rule in the 1920s, education was seen not
only as a means of intellectual development but as
a crucial instrument for constructing the "new
Soviet person"
—
a socially useful, ideologically
aligned citizen regardless of physical or sensory
limitations. The Soviet regime regarded the
education of disabled children as both a moral
imperative and a socio-economic necessity,
intended to convert “unproductive” individuals
into self-reliant contributors to the socialist
economy (Akhmedov, 1982). This was especially
important in the context of the Marxist-Leninist
worldview, which rejected notions of charity and
individualist
care
in
favor
of
collective
responsibility and institutional support.
In the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic (Uzbek SSR),
part of the broader Central Asian periphery of the
USSR, this ideological orientation intersected with
urgent post-revolutionary needs to combat
widespread illiteracy, backwardness (as officially
defined), and limited access to public health and
education
services.
The
establishment
of
educational institutions for visually impaired
children in Uzbekistan was thus both an extension
of central Soviet policy and a response to local
cultural,
demographic,
and
infrastructural
realities. These institutions emerged within the
framework of the state-controlled education
system, and their formation was heavily shaped by
the
growing
influence
of
defektologiya
(defectology), the Soviet science of special
education. This discipline emphasized scientific
diagnosis, individualized instruction, and the
psychological adaptation of children with
disabilities, particularly those with sensory
impairments such as blindness.
Throughout the twentieth century, educational
provision for blind children in Uzbekistan was
gradually institutionalized through the creation of
specialized boarding schools (internaty), teacher
training programs, and the development of
adapted curricula that relied heavily on Braille
literacy, auditory methods, and tactile learning
tools. At the same time, these developments
reflected the specific socio-cultural and economic
conditions of the region, including the Uzbek
language’s adaptation to Braille, the rural
dispersion of the population, and the need to align
special education with vocational training suited to
the regional labor market. Consequently, the
history of visually impaired education in Soviet
Uzbekistan provides not only a case study of Soviet
special education policy in practice but also a
unique lens through which to understand the
interplay between central planning and regional
adaptation in socialist systems of care and
instruction.
Initial Stage of Institutional Development
(1925
–
1940)
The establishment of the first specialized school
for blind children in Tashkent in 1925 represented
a foundational moment in the institutionalization
of education for the visually impaired in Soviet
Uzbekistan. This event marked not only the
beginning of targeted educational interventions
for blind children in the region, but also a broader
shift in the Soviet perception of visual
impairment
—
from a private affliction to a public,
pedagogically addressable condition. The founding
of this school coincided with the early Soviet
campaign against illiteracy (likbez) and the
parallel push for social inclusivity, especially for
marginalized groups who had been historically
excluded from formal education under the Tsarist
regime (Ismatov, 1978). Within this context, the
visually impaired were now recognized as a
population requiring both educational access and
state-supported rehabilitative structures.
At this early stage, the primary educational goal
was to impart basic literacy skills, with instruction
centered around the Braille system. Braille
materials, however, were in limited supply and
often had to be produced manually by instructors
or sourced from central Soviet printing facilities,
which added considerable logistical constraints.
Teaching was primarily carried out by general
educators who, while ideologically committed to
the Soviet cause, lacked formal training in
defektologiya
—
the
specialized
field
that
integrated pedagogical, medical, and psychological
knowledge
to
support
children
with
developmental and sensory impairments. This lack
of professionalization meant that instruction was
often improvised and heavily dependent on the
teacher’s personal dedication and practical
creativity.
Despite these limitations, the significance of this
period lies in its establishment of a pedagogical
and administrative precedent for the treatment of
visual impairment within the formal education
system. The early institutional model laid the
conceptual and operational foundation for the
later systematization of special education in the
republic. It initiated the gradual integration of
blind children into broader educational and social
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policy frameworks, set in motion the development
of localized Braille adaptation in Uzbek, and
introduced the first rudimentary teacher training
initiatives aimed at working with children with
sensory disabilities. As such, the 1925
–
1940
period must be seen not merely as a phase of
experimentation, but as the genesis of a long-term
educational infrastructure that would evolve
significantly over the coming decades.
Wartime and Postwar Expansion (1941
–
1955)
The outbreak of World War II posed immense
challenges for the Soviet education system as a
whole, and particularly for specialized sectors such
as the education of blind and visually impaired
children. Despite widespread mobilization of
resources toward the war effort and a general
decline in public services, the gradual expansion of
special education for the blind in Uzbekistan
continued during this turbulent period. Notably,
the establishment of a second school for blind
children in the early 1940s reflected the Soviet
government’s commitment to maintaining social
infrastructure even amidst military crisis
(Khodzhayev, 1951). This institutional expansion,
while modest in scale, symbolized the ideological
principle that all citizens, including those with
disabilities, had a role to play in the socialist
reconstruction of society.
During
this
time,
educators
and
local
administrators began to implement more
structured lesson plans, drawing upon the
standardized curricula developed by central Soviet
pedagogical institutes. These curricula were
designed to align with both general educational
goals and the specific needs of children with visual
impairments. Nevertheless, the implementation of
these plans was hindered by several systemic
deficiencies. Acute shortages of Braille materials,
teaching aids, and adaptive equipment made it
difficult to deliver consistent and effective
instruction. Furthermore, the wartime drafting of
male teachers and defektologists into the military
significantly depleted the already limited pool of
trained personnel, forcing schools to rely on
underqualified staff or even volunteers with
minimal pedagogical preparation.
Despite these constraints, the survival and modest
growth of blind education institutions during this
period were made possible in large part by the
informal yet vital contributions of families, local
communities, and women educators. Parents of
visually impaired children often took on roles in
the daily life of schools
—
cooking, maintaining
facilities,
and
even
assisting
with
basic
instructional activities. Community solidarity,
combined with the Soviet ethos of mutual aid
(vzaimopomoshch'), played a critical role in
sustaining these schools during times of economic
and human resource scarcity. In this regard, the
wartime and immediate postwar years were not
only a time of hardship but also a period in which
a resilient, community-supported model of special
education began to take shape in Uzbekistan. The
networks of trust and cooperation forged during
this era would prove foundational for the
professionalization and institutional consolidation
that followed in the subsequent decades.
Professionalization and Curriculum Reform
(1956
–
1970)
With the onset of post-Stalinist educational
reforms during the late 1950s and throughout the
1960s, the Soviet Union entered a period of
pedagogical renewal that extended significantly
into the domain of special education. These
reforms were informed by a broader ideological
shift that emphasized the modernization of society,
human capital development, and the scientific
management of education. As part of this
movement, the education of blind and visually
impaired children in Uzbekistan underwent a
phase
of
institutional
expansion
and
professionalization, underpinned by increasing
state investment and scientific innovation.
One of the most notable developments during this
period was the establishment of specialized
teacher training programs within pedagogical
institutes in the Uzbek SSR. These programs were
designed to produce qualified defektologi
—
educators trained specifically in the psychology,
physiology, and pedagogy of children with visual
impairments. The curriculum for such programs
incorporated instruction in tactile communication
methods, including the production and use of
raised-letter textbooks, embossed diagrams, and
models. Equally significant was the growing
emphasis on psychological adaptation and
emotional support, reflecting the increasing
influence of Soviet developmental psychology,
especially the works of L.S. Vygotsky and his
successors, who emphasized the sociocultural
context of disability and the potential for cognitive
compensation through appropriate mediation
(Rakhimova, 1967).
During this phase, the physical and technological
infrastructure of schools for the blind improved
considerably. A wide range of teaching aids was
introduced into the classroom, including raised
maps for geography instruction, Perkins-style
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Braille typewriters, audio-based textbooks, and
tactile mathematics boards. These tools enabled
students to access a broader curriculum, including
history,
literature,
natural
sciences,
and
mathematics. Instruction was no longer limited to
basic literacy; rather, it expanded to support multi-
sensory learning and foster analytical thinking
through non-visual modalities.
Importantly, the curriculum for visually impaired
students also emphasized vocational and artistic
education as a means of facilitating economic
independence and long-term social integration.
Students were systematically introduced to music
education (particularly piano, accordion, and vocal
training), as well as various forms of handcrafts,
including weaving, woodwork, and ceramic arts. In
addition, training in light industrial tasks
—
such as
assembly work and mechanical repairs
—
was
integrated into the school day, particularly in the
upper grades. These efforts reflected a dual
objective: on the one hand, the ideological
imperative of producing productive socialist
citizens; on the other, the practical recognition of
the labor market realities that visually impaired
individuals would encounter upon graduation.
This period also witnessed the beginnings of
individualized
educational
planning
and
differentiation according to cognitive and sensory
capabilities. Teachers were encouraged to develop
flexible approaches tailored to students’ learning
styles, degrees of vision loss, and psychological
profiles. The influence of scientific defektologiya
became increasingly pronounced, promoting a
vision of disability education grounded in
empirical observation, therapeutic support, and
measurable outcomes. Taken together, these
reforms contributed to the emergence of a more
holistic, systematized, and socially integrated
model of blind education in Uzbekistan, aligned
with the Soviet Union’s broader goals of egalitarian
modernization.
Consolidation and Systematization (1971
–
1990)
By the 1970s, the education of visually impaired
children in the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic had
reached a stage of full institutional consolidation,
reflecting both the maturation of Soviet special
education policy and the outcomes of decades of
incremental reform. Schools for blind children
were no longer peripheral or experimental
entities; they had become well-structured
institutions
with
dedicated
infrastructure,
professional staff, and pedagogical autonomy.
These schools were typically equipped with
residential dormitories, specialized libraries
containing
Braille
and
audio
materials,
rehabilitation and medical rooms for physical and
psychological assessments, and fully operational
vocational
training
workshops.
This
comprehensive environment allowed visually
impaired students to receive not only academic
instruction but also holistic life preparation within
a secure and resource-equipped setting (Sattarov,
1988).
The pedagogical model during this period was
notably more differentiated and individualized
than in earlier decades. Instructional plans were
tailored
to
the
sensory,
cognitive,
and
psychological profiles of each student, reflecting
the increasing influence of clinical psychology and
special education diagnostics within Soviet
defektologiya. Teachers and specialists
—
now
more numerous and better trained
—
were
encouraged
to
design
adaptive
learning
experiences that emphasized both academic
competence and emotional development. A core
belief within late Soviet pedagogy was that
children with disabilities should not be limited to
narrow functional training but should be provided
opportunities for intellectual engagement, cultural
enrichment, and moral formation consistent with
broader Soviet ideals of the “all
-sidedly developed
personality.”
Key components of the curriculum now included
specialized training in orientation and mobility
(O&M), which equipped students with the skills to
navigate unfamiliar environments using canes and
auditory cues. Instruction in daily living skills
—
such as personal hygiene, food preparation, and
clothing care
—
was institutionalized as a regular
part of the educational program, especially for
boarding school residents. Furthermore, schools
emphasized
the
development
of
social
communication skills, including speech therapy,
group discussion techniques, and role-playing
exercises designed to enhance interpersonal
competence and emotional expression.
Vocational training also became more rigorous and
diversified. Schools collaborated with local
industries and vocational-technical centers to
provide real-world apprenticeships in fields
deemed accessible to blind individuals, such as
massage
therapy,
radio
assembly,
textile
production, and musical instrument tuning. These
programs were not merely rehabilitative but
explicitly aimed at labor market integration, in
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accordance with the Soviet ideological framework
that emphasized the economic productivity of all
citizens, including those with disabilities.
During this period, the number of trained
defektologi
(special
education
teachers)
significantly increased due to expanded teacher
training programs in Tashkent and other
republican centers. These professionals played a
key role not only in academic instruction but also
in family counseling, psychometric assessment,
and the development of individualized educational
trajectories. As a result of these combined efforts,
schools for the blind in Uzbekistan came to be
viewed
—
both within the republic and across the
Soviet Union
—
as exemplary models of the
inclusive potential embedded in the socialist
education system. Though not “inclusive” in the
modern Western sense of full mainstreaming,
these institutions represented an ambitious and
often effective approach to integration through
specialized, state-supported parallel structures
that sought to normalize disability within the
broader logic of Soviet collectivity and equality.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The period from 1925 to 1990 witnessed the
gradual emergence and consolidation of a
comprehensive institutional framework for the
education of visually impaired children in
Uzbekistan.
Over these six decades, the Uzbek Soviet Socialist
Republic developed a structured system of
residential schools, pedagogical institutes, and
rehabilitative services dedicated to children with
visual impairments. This system evolved from
rudimentary, understaffed initiatives in the 1920s
into a fully institutionalized and state-supported
educational sector by the late Soviet era. The
trajectory reflects both the internal evolution of
Soviet educational policy and the successful
localization of special education models within the
Central Asian context.
2. The evolution of teaching methodologies
—
from foundational Braille literacy to advanced,
multi-sensory and psychopedagogical strategies
—
demonstrates the transformative role of Soviet
defectology in shaping the instructional landscape.
Early reliance on tactile reading systems gradually
gave way to integrated approaches that
incorporated auditory learning, psychological
adaptation techniques, orientation and mobility
training, and differentiated instructional design.
These pedagogical innovations were grounded in
the theoretical foundations of Soviet special
education
science
(defektologiya),
which
emphasized the adaptability of children with
sensory disabilities through scientifically informed
teaching.
3. The long-
term development of Uzbekistan’s
educational provision for the blind underscores
the centrality of state intervention in teacher
preparation, specialized curriculum development,
and the socio-pedagogical inclusion of children
with disabilities.
The consistent expansion of training programs for
defektologi, the institutionalization of vocational
and life skills education, and the emphasis on
moral, cultural, and emotional development
collectively contributed to the integration of
visually impaired children into both the
educational system and the broader socialist
society. This experience illustrates the efficacy of
state-supported special education models in
contexts where centralized planning enables
cohesive policy implementation.
Recommendations
1. It is recommended that future research
prioritize the documentation and critical analysis
of the micro-histories of individual educational
institutions for the blind in Soviet Uzbekistan. Each
school possessed unique institutional trajectories,
leadership styles, localized challenges, and
creative pedagogical adaptations that are often
absent from centralized historical accounts.
Through oral histories, archival investigation, and
comparative regional studies, scholars can
reconstruct
the
day-to-day
realities
and
innovations that emerged within these specialized
settings. Such research would not only enrich the
historiography of Soviet special education but also
inform present-day debates on institutional
memory, inclusive heritage, and disability
pedagogy in post-socialist contexts.
2. Contemporary special education policy in
Uzbekistan and other post-Soviet states would
benefit significantly from a systematic re-
examination of Soviet-era models of disability
education. While the centralized and ideologically
driven nature of Soviet policy had limitations, the
extensive investment in specialized infrastructure,
teacher training, and curriculum development
offers instructive lessons for modern reform. In
particular, the Soviet emphasis on multi-
disciplinary collaboration between educators,
psychologists,
medical
professionals,
and
vocational trainers presents a potentially valuable
model for integrated service delivery in current
systems struggling with fragmentation and
resource scarcity.
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3. It is recommended that higher education
programs preparing future special education
professionals incorporate historical case-based
learning derived from the Soviet experience of
institutional development for blind children.
By studying how past educators navigated
pedagogical constraints, developed adaptive tools,
and constructed inclusive communities within
specialized institutions, students can develop a
more nuanced understanding of both the
potentials and limits of systematized disability
education. Such case studies can serve as critical
pedagogical tools for fostering reflective, context-
aware, and historically literate practitioners in the
field of inclusive education.
REFERENCES
Akhmedov, K. R. (1982). Pedagogical heritage of
the Soviet East: Special education in Uzbekistan.
Tashkent: Fan Publishing House.
Ismatov, B. A. (1978). History of educational
institutions for children with disabilities in
Uzbekistan (1920s
–
1950s). Tashkent: Ministry of
Education Archives.
Khodzhayev, N. T. (1951). Problems of inclusive
education in the Uzbek SSR. Soviet Pedagogy, 3(2),
44
–
52.
Rakhimova, Z. B. (1967). Tactile education of blind
children: Methodological recommendations for
Uzbek schools. Tashkent: Republican Institute for
Teacher Training.
Sattarov, A. K. (1988). Social adaptation of blind
children in educational institutions. Journal of
Special Education of the USSR, 7(1), 29
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