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Architectural Heritage of Central Asia: Mosques and Madrasas of The
Timur And Timurid Era
Abdumajid Madraimov
Honored Worker of Culture of Uzbekistan, Doctor of Historical Sciences, Senior Researcher of the State Museum of the History
of the Temurids of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Uzbekistan
Askariy Madraimov
Associate Professor, PhD, Tashkent State University of Oriental Studies, Uzbekistan
Manzura A. Mamasharipova
Second-Year Master's Student, Tashkent State University of Oriental Studies, Uzbekistan
A R T I C L E I N f
О
Article history:
Submission Date: 12 March 2025
Accepted Date: 08 April 2025
Published Date: 10 May 2025
VOLUME:
Vol.05 Issue05
Page No. 9-15
DOI: -
https://doi.org/10.37547/social-
A B S T R A C T
The article is dedicated to the architectural heritage of Central Asia, with a
focus on mosques and madrasas built during the Timur and Timurid era.
The study covers the main architectural styles and their development
under the influence of historical and cultural factors. It examines how
Timur's reign contributed to the dissemination of new architectural ideas,
shaping unique features such as majestic domes, intricate mosaics, and rich
ornamentation. Special attention is given to the functional aspects of the
buildings and their roles in education and religion, highlighting the
importance of madrasas as centers of knowledge and cultural life. The
architectural heritage of Timur and the Timurids reflects the interaction of
various cultural traditions, including Islamic, Persian, and local contexts.
The architecture of this period serves as a symbol of the region's cultural
identity, influencing contemporary perceptions of its historical legacy.
Keywords:
Mosques, madrasas, cultural identity, style, ornamentation.
INTRODUCTION
The architectural heritage of Central Asia,
particularly the mosques and madrasas built
during the Timurid era, represents a unique
synthesis of cultural traditions that reflect the
complex history of the region. During this period,
spanning the 14th to 15th centuries, architecture
became an important means of political and
cultural self-identification, showcasing the power
and ambitions of rulers. The construction of
majestic buildings adorned with intricate
ornaments and unique domes not only served
religious and educational purposes but also
became a symbol of cultural exchange between
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ISSN: 2752-7018
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Islamic, Persian, and local contexts.
From Transoxiana, Timur's armies launched
victorious campaigns into various countries,
reaching as far west as Anatolia and as far east as
India. Timur aimed to make his capital the finest
city in the world. Exceptional artists and craftsmen
were brought to Samarkand from the conquered
lands. The monumental structures from Timur's
time still testify to the grand construction efforts
that took place in Samarkand and other cities five
centuries ago.
Timur was not only a great conqueror but also an
outstanding builder. Each time he destroyed a city
standing in the path of his army, he would bring
back artisans to construct his royal city of
Samarkand. "There were sculptors, stonemasons,
and plasterers from Azerbaijan, Isfahan, and Delhi;
mosaicists from Shiraz; weavers, glassblowers,
and potters from Damascus
—
so many that the
city could not accommodate them all." In the few
brief moments when he was not on a military
campaign, he was busy overseeing his construction
projects. Perhaps the most striking aspect of
Timur's monuments is their grandeur. They stand
as a testament to a man who made the earth
tremble in his time, as confirmed by an Arabic
proverb inscribed on one of his buildings: "If you
want to learn about us, study our buildings."
During the era of Timur, Maverannahr became a
center not only for military conquests but also for
cultural flourishing. With ambitious goals in mind,
Timur sought to transform Samarkand into the
finest city in the world, which helped attract
outstanding artists and craftsmen from conquered
territories. This created a unique synergy of
various cultures and traditions, reflected in the
architectural masterpieces of that time. The
majestic mosques, madrasas, and palaces built in
Samarkand and other cities continue to impress
with their craftsmanship and scale. These
structures served not only as symbols of Timur's
power but also as testaments to the grand
construction projects that shaped the architectural
heritage of the region for centuries to come.
Studying the architecture of Timur's era allows for
a deeper understanding of not only its cultural and
historical contexts but also the role that
architecture played in shaping the identity of
Central Asia.
Although Timur focused his architectural efforts
on Samarkand, he also constructed buildings in
other cities, such as Shahrisabz, where he built the
magnificent Ak-Saray (White Palace), and
Turkestan, where he erected a mosque and
mausoleum in honor of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi, a
renowned poet and Sufi sheikh. The first of these
structures was almost completely destroyed by the
Uzbeks in the sixteenth century, but its ruins still
remain. The second has been preserved in fairly
good condition and is reported to still function as a
"holy place," where devoted Muslims make
periodic pilgrimages, although this is, of course,
not encouraged by the Soviet government. Now,
let’s take a closer look at each of them:
1. The Ak-Saray in Shahrisabz is a white palace
that, although partially destroyed, still impresses
with its scale.
2. The Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi in
Turkestan is a preserved holy site where pilgrims
come. Despite restrictions from the Soviet
government in the past, today the government
does not prohibit visits to this significant site, and
pilgrimage continues.
However,
perhaps
the
most
impressive
architecture that has survived from this period can
be considered the buildings in Samarkand. Timur
filled his capital with both secular and religious
monuments, as well as numerous gardens with
stone walls and floors adorned with intricate
patterns, and palaces furnished with gold, silk, and
carpets. Most of these structures have not survived
to this day. For example, his magnificent four-story
palace is described by Babur in his memoirs.
Nevertheless, several significant buildings have
survived and can still be seen today.
He focused primarily on construction in
Samarkand, his capital, where he erected
magnificent buildings and gardens filled with
exquisite
patterns
and
rich
decorations.
Samarkand became a center of culture and art,
where both secular and religious monuments were
built. Although many of Timur's constructions
have not survived, some significant structures
continue to impress with their grandeur even
today.
Despite the rich research legacy, many aspects of
the architectural heritage of this period remain
insufficiently studied. In particular, there is a need
for a deep analysis of the interaction between
architecture and the social and educational
functions of madrasas, as well as an assessment of
their role in shaping the cultural identity of the
region.
Clavijo emphasizes throughout his diary the
wealth of the cities in Timur's realm, the luxury of
the ruler's palaces, the precious adornments of the
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mosques erected at his command, the might of the
fortresses and castles, and the variety of building
types (palaces, mosques, mausoleums, baths,
inns). Regarding the city of Tabriz, he reports that
"in this city there are very large buildings and
mosques, decorated in an astonishing manner with
tiles and ceramics, azure and gold of Greek
craftsmanship, and many beautiful glasses."
"Moreover, there were beautiful and rich mosques
in this city, and there were also baths, the most
magnificent, I think, that could possibly exist in the
world." Regarding the city of Sultaniyya, Clavijo
reports that "many canals run through it, and it has
many well-decorated squares and streets where
various goods are sold. There are also large inns
where merchants who come there stay." After
crossing the Amu Darya, Clavijo notes in his diary
that one day they stopped for lunch "at the foot of
a high mountain, where a beautiful house was built
in a cross shape, adorned with very fine work from
bricks, with many patterns and designs, and
decorated with multicolored tiles." About the city
of Kesh, from which Timur originated, Clavijo
states that "in this city there were many large
houses and mosques, especially one mosque built
by Tamurbek [i.e., Timur], which was not yet
completed." "This mosque and its chapels are very
rich and magnificently decorated with gold, lapis
lazuli, and tiles." Regarding Samarkand, he writes
that "it is slightly larger than the city of Seville," "so
abundant and wealthy is this city, and the land
surrounding it, that one cannot help but be
amazed." In Samarkand itself, the entrance door to
the garden where Timur received his envoys "was
very wide and tall, superbly decorated with gold,
lapis lazuli, and tiles." "This garden had high and
beautiful gates made of brick and adorned with
tiles, lapis lazuli, and gold in various styles," Clavijo
notes about one of the residences. Thus, the
Spanish envoy constantly emphasizes the beauty
and grandeur of Timur's buildings, the luxury of
their decoration, in which the main role is played,
judging by the numerous mentions, by tiles
adorned with gold and lapis lazuli.
For the analysis of the architectural heritage of the
Timurid state, Clavijo's records were used as one
of the additional historical sources. Although his
diary contains valuable descriptions of cities and
architectural objects, other sources were also
drawn upon for a more comprehensive
understanding, including archaeological data,
works by contemporary historians, and studies in
art history. This allowed for a more complete
picture of the material culture and architectural
heritage of that time. Clavijo's diary was chosen
because of its detailed descriptions of cities,
architectural objects, and cultural practices, which
provide deeper insights into the material culture of
this period. It should be noted that the research is
based on Clavijo's subjective observations, which
may affect the interpretation of the data. There are
also preserved examples of buildings erected by
subsequent rulers of the Timurids. As mentioned
earlier, although they did not share their
predecessor's passion for territorial expansion,
they inherited his love for beautiful architecture.
Interestingly, one of the main builders of the
Timurids was Gawhar Shad, the wife of Shah Rukh,
who was responsible for the magnificent mosque
in Mashhad (built between 1405 and 1418) and the
complex of mosque, madrasa, and mausoleum in
Herat
(1417-1437).
Unfortunately,
these
structures are mostly in ruins today, largely due to
wars and earthquakes over the past two centuries.
It can be imagined that the shift of the Timurid
capital to Herat also moved the architectural focus
from Samarkand to this city. Nevertheless, the
Timurids continued to build in the capital of their
founder, especially Ulugh Beg, who was the
governor of the city under his father Shah Rukh.
The architectural heritage of the Timurids
represents a unique blend of cultural influences
and historical events that shaped the region in the
15th century. One of the key figures of this period
was Gawhar Shad, the wife of Shah Rukh, who
played a significant role in the construction of
magnificent structures such as the mosque in
Mashhad and the complex in Herat. Her
contribution highlights the importance of women's
involvement in architecture, demonstrating that
women could have a notable impact on the cultural
development of their time.
The transition of the capital from Samarkand to
Herat was an important event that reflected
changes in centers of power and cultural influence.
The shift of focus to Herat, along with the ongoing
construction in Samarkand, highlights the
dynamism and multifaceted nature of Timurid
architectural heritage.
However, history was not without its destructions.
Wars and earthquakes caused significant damage
to architectural monuments, serving as a reminder
of the fragility of cultural heritage. These events
testify to how historical circumstances can impact
the
preservation
and
transformation
of
architecture.
Samarkand is home to numerous architectural
monuments from the Timurid era, and it is
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practically impossible to cover them all in a single
article. However, several key structures stand out
for their grandeur. Among them, the mausoleum of
Gur-Emir, the Bibi-Khanym Mosque, and the Shah-
i-Zinda mausoleum complex are particularly
significant. Although the latter began construction
before Timur's reign, it was he who made a
substantial contribution to its modern appearance.
Additionally, it is worth mentioning two
outstanding examples of architecture created after
Timur's death: the Ulugh Beg Madrasah and
Observatory.
Gur-i-Amir ("Tomb of the Great Prince") is a
mausoleum originally intended for the burial of
Timur's beloved grandson, Muhammad Sultan
(1375-1403), who was interred there after his
death in one of Timur's campaigns. This complex
also houses the remains of Timur himself, as well
as several other family members, including Umar
Sheikh, Miran Shah, Pir Muhammad, Shah Rukh,
and Ulugh Beg. Timur was the principal builder of
this structure, and the initial complex, except for
the mausoleum, was likely completed by 1401. The
mausoleum itself was finished in 1404. According
to the account of Clavijo, when Timur returned
from a campaign and found the mausoleum to be
too low in his estimation, he ordered it to be rebuilt
in ten days. Clavijo reports: "Without delay,
restoration began, and work continued day and
night... The chapel was completely rebuilt within
the designated ten days, and it was remarkable
how such a great building could be erected and
completed in such a short time." Whether the
reconstruction was indeed completed in such a
brief period remains a matter of debate. Later,
Ulugh Beg also worked on the mausoleum, adding
the eastern gallery in 1424.
The original complex included three buildings
grouped around a square courtyard: the
mausoleum (to the south), a madrasah (to the
east), and a khanqah (to the west). The northern
side of the courtyard contained the entrance
portal. At each corner of the courtyard stood a
minaret. "The significance of this complex lies in
the fact that it represents some of the earliest
surviving evidence of ensemble planning, which
became so popular during the Timurid period and
later." The only parts of the complex that remain
intact are the mausoleum, the entrance portal, and
one of the minarets. Excavations have revealed the
foundations of the madrasah, but not enough
remains to reconstruct the plan of the khanqah. It
appears that the madrasah, being the earliest
example from the Timurid period, "had a central
courtyard with two axial iwans and a niche facade,
from which one could access student cells. Large
rooms, lecture halls, and likely a small mosque
were located in the four corners." As mentioned,
the entrance portal still stands. It is adorned with
tiles (some of which have been restored) and
muqarnas elements that demonstrate Iranian
influence. This is not surprising, as the architect,
Muhammad ibn Mahmud al-Banna al-Isfahani,
hailed from Isfahan.
The Gur-Emir Mausoleum in Samarkand is an
outstanding example of Islamic architecture,
characterized by elements such as its octagonal
shape, dome, and rich decorative embellishments.
The mausoleum truly impresses with its size and
intricate details. The exterior, adorned with glazed
tiles, inscriptions, and geometric patterns, reflects
the high level of craftsmanship of that era. An
important aspect of the architecture is the
interplay of light and color, creating an atmosphere
of grandeur and sanctity.
The gallery added by Ulugh Beg also emphasizes
the significance of this place as a center of science
and culture during the Timurid period. The ribbed
dome you mentioned is indeed a characteristic
element of the architecture of that time and
symbolizes the connection between the earthly
and the heavenly.
The Bibi Khanum Mosque ("Old Queen") was
named after Timur's beloved wife, Saray Mulk
Khanum, the daughter of a puppet Chagatai khan
whom Timur and Husayn installed in 1364 to
legitimize their conquests in Transoxania. It is
correctly referred to as Masjid-i Jami' (the
congregational mosque), but it took on the name of
Timur's wife. Timur built it with funds he brought
from India and is said to have used 95 Indian
elephants to transport building materials from the
quarries. Construction began in 1398-1399, and
upon completion, it became "one of the most
colossal monuments ever built in the Islamic
world." Apparently, as with the Gur-i Amir, Timur
ordered partial restoration of the mosque in 1404-
1405, but it remains unclear what exactly was
restored and why. Clavijo reports that since the
amir was in poor health at that time, "he was
carried on a litter to this place every morning, and
he spent most of the day there overseeing the
work." Opposite the entrance, a madrasa and a
mausoleum were built, which are now mostly in
ruins, constructed by the queen herself. The
Masjid-i Shah in Isfahan, Iran, as well as some
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Mughal mosques in India, appear to have copied its
basic form.
The decoration of the mosque, which originally
covered all visible surfaces, is rich and diverse,
including Kufic patterns and girihs made from
glazed bricks in the hazarbaf technique, mosaic
faience, tiles embedded in brick and stone, marble
and terracotta inlays, as well as tile work known as
"haft rangi." A band of inscriptions separates the
upper and lower parts of the wall of the iwan of the
main sanctuary. The iwan itself was originally
framed by a spiral molding made of light blue tiles.
All three domes, now in varying states of disrepair,
were originally covered with light blue tiles in the
muqarnas zone. The domes were adorned with
inscriptions in the hazarbaf technique, with the
smaller ones in verses and the larger one in Kufic
style. Parts of the latter are still visible. Inside, the
dome spaces were decorated with painted plaster
and gilded papier-mâché, both materials featuring
shades of blue and gold; little of the latter has
survived to this day. Above the iwan of the
sanctuary is an inscription made from carved
unglazed terracotta. Both this inscription and the
one above the entrance portal, of which little can
be discerned, are attributed to the construction of
the mosque "by the Great Sultan, the pillar of state
and religion, Amir Timur Gurkan..."
The decoration of the mosque represents an
outstanding example of Islamic art and
architecture, where every detail carries deep
symbolism and cultural significance. The use of
diverse techniques, such as glazed tiles, terracotta
carving, and gilding, creates a harmonious blend of
aesthetics and spirituality. Despite the loss of some
elements, the surviving fragments continue to
inspire and captivate, reflecting the grandeur and
craftsmanship of their creators. The mosque
remains an important historical monument that
attracts the attention of both researchers and
tourists, preserving the memory of its rich cultural
heritage.
Shakhi Zinda ("The Living King") is a complex of
sixteen buildings originally built in honor of Kusam
ibn Abbas, presumably a cousin of Muhammad
himself, who came to preach Islam in Samarkand
in 676 AD. There are several legends about him:
some say he was beheaded by the local inhabitants,
after which he "picked up his severed head and
plunged into a well, from which he will one day
reappear." A prophecy, believed to date back to the
14th century, predicted that he would rise and
save Samarkand if the Russians attacked the city;
however, in 1868, Kusam did not show any activity
to help, which forever undermined his reputation.
Another legend tells that "he was not killed but,
escaping from the infidels, entered a cliff that
miraculously opened before him and closed after
his entrance."
Once Islam was established in Transoxania, this
place soon became a holy sanctuary and a site of
pilgrimage for the faithful. Ibn Battuta describes it
as follows: "Beyond Samarkand lies the tomb of
Kusam ibn Abbas. The inhabitants of Samarkand
come to visit it every Sunday and Thursday night.
The Tatars also come to visit it, bringing vows and
offering cows, sheep, dirhams, and dinars [coins]."
In addition to Kusam ibn Abbas, the Shah-i-Zinda
complex also contains the remains of several other
members of the Timur family who either died
before the construction of the Gur-i Amir or were
deemed too lowly to be buried there. Since the
complex is too vast to document fully here, we will
focus only on some of its general features.
Шахи
-
Зинда расположен на холме Афрасийаб,
месте
Самарканда
до
монгольского
завоевания, к северу от современного города.
Вход
в
комплекс
представляет
собой
массивные ворота
-
иван. A long staircase, 70
meters in length, leads to the summit of the
complex, where the tomb of the Living King is
located. On both sides of the staircase are
mausoleums with others buried here. These tombs
are grouped into three ensembles: one at the
entrance gates, another halfway along the passage,
and the third clustered around the tomb of Kusam
at the top of the hill.
Excavations have revealed remnants of the old city
of Samarkand below ground level, indicating that
before this area was used as a cemetery, it
primarily housed residential and commercial
buildings. However, even at that time, religious
structures already existed on this site. Certainly,
during the early Islamic period, a temple dedicated
to Kusam was built, which soon became a center
for worship at this location. The earliest surviving
structures of the complex, including the minaret
next to Kusam's mausoleum, were constructed in
the 11th century. By the 12th century, this site was
exclusively used as a cemetery. Much of the
original complex that developed around Kusam's
tomb was destroyed by the Mongols when they
plundered Samarkand in 1221, although they
spared the Living King from this desecration.
In the 14th century, interest in the "cult of saints"
was revived, leading to further construction on this
site, and a new Shah-i-Zinda emerged here. Part of
the earlier complex has been preserved within the
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mausoleum that contains Kusam, while the rest
dates back to 1334-1335 and around 1460.
Construction at this site continued throughout the
14th century and into the following century, with
Timur merely continuing this tradition. Since then,
especially in the 18th and 19th centuries, new
structures have been added to the complex.
Many of the same features seen in the monuments
built by Timur and his successors are evident in
Shah-i-Zinda. Blue domes, some smooth and some
ribbed, adorn many of the buildings. Tile
inscriptions in Kufic script, similar to those found
on the Gur-i-Amir and the Bibi-Khanym Mosque,
wrap around the drums of many domes. The
facades and entrance iwans of the mausoleums are
decorated with a wide variety of ornamentation,
including muqarnas, glazed brick and tile masonry,
mosaics, and glazed terracotta. Horizontal and
vertical bands with inscriptions utilize both Kufic
and sulṭanī scripts. Indeed, some of the most
exquisite decorations in Central Asia can be seen in
this complex. Various patterns are employed,
including floral and plant motifs, stars, and
geometric designs. The interior decoration of some
buildings is also quite ornate, featuring "mosaic
panels with fine gilding on the glaze, others with
landscapes (flowers, shrubs, streams, trees with
birds, clouds), showcasing remarkable Chinese
influence that can also be found in stylized dragons
and phoenixes in wall ornaments." In the words of
a Soviet writer: "Not sorrow, but reconciliation and
tranquility emanate from this city of the dead with
its freshness and intensity of colors and
unexpected perspectives and combinations of
forms."
The Ulugh Beg Madrasah is located on the Registan,
a large square that Lord Curzon, the Viceroy of
India, described in 1888 as "the greatest public
square in the world." "I know of nothing in the East
that could compare with it in massive simplicity
and grandeur," he wrote, "and nothing in Europe,
perhaps only on a modest scale, could even
attempt to compete with St. Mark's Square in
Venice. No European spectacle can truly be
adequately compared to this, as we cannot point to
an open space in any Western city that is
surrounded on three sides by Gothic cathedrals of
the highest order."
As Curzon noted, the square is today bordered on
three sides by madrasahs. The first of these is the
Ulugh Beg Madrasah, built between 1417 and
1421. The other two were constructed later to
replace the khanqah and caravanserai that were
established under Ulugh Beg. The Shir-Dor
Madrasah is essentially a copy of the Ulugh Beg
Madrasah and was built between 1619 and 1635,
while the Tillya-Kari Madrasah was constructed
between 1646 and 1659. "Shir-Dor" means "Lion
Holders," referring to the tigers depicted on the
facade. "Tillya-Kari" translates to "Embroidered
with Gold," alluding to the abundance of gold in
this building. Since these last two constructions
date from after the Timurids, we will focus here on
the Ulugh Beg Madrasah.
It is perhaps fitting that Ulugh Beg, more of a
scholar than a military or religious leader, left an
educational institution as his primary contribution
to the architecture of Samarkand. Indeed, it stands
as the most prominent example of such buildings
from the early Timurid period. "As a work of
architecture, it is unique in its complexity and
ambition. It ranks among the finest works of this
period."
It is interesting to note the inscription that Ulugh
Beg placed above the portal leading to the mosque.
This may reflect his desire to link religion and
science, a desire that ultimately led to his downfall:
"This mosque has been built to remind one of
Paradise... it contains teachers of true sciences,
useful for religion, under the guidance of the
greatest of sultans..." By the time of the Soviet era,
the madrasah was in a dilapidated state. Since
then, the severely leaning northeastern minaret
has been propped up, and the mosaic on the main
arch has largely been restored.
The architectural heritage of Central Asia,
represented by mosques and madrasahs from the
Timurid era, is a vivid testament to the grandeur
and cultural diversity of this region. These
structures not only reflect high achievements in
architecture and art but also serve as important
centers of education and religion. The influence of
Islamic culture, along with interactions with other
civilizations of that time, has made them unique
examples of architectural style.
The preservation and study of these monuments
are of immense significance for understanding the
historical context and cultural identity of Central
Asia. In light of modern challenges related to
globalization and urbanization, it is essential not
only to maintain the physical integrity of these
sites but also to pass on their values to future
generations. The architectural heritage of the
Timurids continues to inspire researchers,
architects, and art enthusiasts, serving as a bridge
between the past and the present, as well as a
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symbol of the rich cultural legacy of the region.
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