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Publisher:
Oscar Publishing Services
Servi
ABSTRACT
Internal load is the reaction of the div as a result of the physiological and psychological stress of athletes during
training or competition. Response to training must be continually monitored by trainers and/or practitioners to ensure
effective performance. There are many methods for assessing internal load monitoring. These methods can be used
in the field and laboratory. With the rapid development of technology and sports science, new devices and ideas are
emerging every day. Applications that were previously only run in a lab environment are now so simple that they can
be run using an app on your watch or phone. These innovations bring many benefits to sports scientists and
practitioners. Team and individual sports practitioners should develop training programs using these methods.
There may be individual differences, especially in team sports. During the same training session, athletes may exhibit
different physiological responses. It is known that these differences can reduce the effectiveness of training and lead
to injury and illness. Moreover, these assessments become even more important in sports such as football, where
there can be periods of intense competition. Therefore, this review aims to assist sport scientists and practitioners by
providing a comprehensive discussion on the formulation and assessment of internal loads during exercise.
KEYWORDS
Training monitoring, training load, internal load, performance monitoring, sports, individual.
INTRODUCTION
Research Article
PHYSIOLOGICAL REACTIONS TO INTERNAL LOAD STUDY
Submission Date:
December 01, 2023,
Accepted Date:
December 05, 2023,
Published Date:
December 10, 2023
Crossref doi:
https://doi.org/10.37547/ajsshr/Volume03Issue12-07
Yarasheva Dilnoza
Asian International University Physical Culture Department Lecturer, Uzbekistan
Journal
Website:
https://theusajournals.
com/index.php/ajsshr
Copyright:
Original
content from this work
may be used under the
terms of the creative
commons
attributes
4.0 licence.
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SJIF
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6.
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)
OCLC
–
1121105677
Publisher:
Oscar Publishing Services
Servi
Systematic monitoring of training loads provides
important information for assessing and improving
athletes' performance. Based on this important
information, coaches and sports scientists can use
these observations to achieve more effective training
results, assess parameters such as overtraining and
overexertion, and predict and prevent existing injuries
and diseases that may occur. There are many objective
and subjective assessment methods to monitor
athletes' performance and bring it to the desired level.
Internal training load is the physiological and
psychological reactions that arise as a result of stress
affecting the athlete’s div during training or
competition.
Physiological stress
When assessing physiological loads, which is one of the
indicators of internal loads, methods related to heart
rate and degree of difficulty are often used. In addition,
biochemical,
hormonal
and
immunological
assessments are performed to determine the div's
acute and chronic responses to training.
Heart rate
In the 20th century, heart rate monitors were only used
in laboratory settings, but today, with the rapid
advancement of technology, they have changed the
situation. The ability to easily perform these
assessments using devices such as phones and watch
apps has made it one of the most commonly used
training monitoring methods by coaches and sports
scientists. The fact that studies on the use of heart rate
in assessing training loads have shown mixed results
suggests that this issue is open to debate. In addition,
it is known that two athletes with the same average
heart rate during training may have different
physiological responses as a result of training. In this
context, heart rate; These include temperature,
dehydration, medications used, diurnal variables, level
of training or competition, individual differences,
circadian rhythms, and assessments in combination
with various methods such as perceived level of
difficulty, lactate concentration, exercise stimulation.
Many factors can influence this. It was believed that
effective results could be achieved by using TRIMP in
assessing training loads.
Changes in heart rate
It has been noted that heart rate variability is a valuable
measurement method that provides information
about the athlete's training adaptation by assessing
the autonomic function of the cardiovascular system at
rest or after exercise. Heart rate variability is a measure
of changes in RR intervals and can be assessed in a
variety of ways. Among these methods, the arithmetic
mean of the square root of the differences between
the RR intervals is often used. These measurements
can be taken using devices such as chest
electrocardiography,
electrocardiography,
and
smartphone photoplethysmography. However, chest
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cages are often preferred due to their ease of use in
the field and more affordable price. Chronically
elevated heart rate variability is associated with a
positive response to exercise, while low levels of heart
rate variability are associated with a negative response
to exercise. For example, studies of swimmers and
middle-distance runners used 3 weeks of extreme-
intensity training and found that heart rate variability
decreased by 22% (swimmers) and 38% (intermediate)
as a result of this training. - long distance runners)
respectively. After this training, the swimmers' load
decreased by 69% and heart rate variability decreased
by 7% within 2 weeks, and after 1 week, with a 40%
decrease in training load, heart rate variability
decreased by 38%. in long distance runners. In this
regard, changes in heart rate are an important
indicator in determining and regulating training loads
in the order of periodic training of students.
Heart rate restoration
Heart rate recovery is primarily an acute and chronic
response of the div to training loads. Research has
shown that slow recovery of heart rate is an indicator
of factors such as fatigue and inability to cope with
training load, while rapid recovery is a positive sign of
improved performance. However, results from studies
examining the relationship between heart rate
recovery and athletic performance are inconsistent. It
is noted that the HRR alone does not provide
information on all aspects of performance and should
therefore be assessed in conjunction with non-invasive
tests such as exercise, RPE and psychometric
measures. Perceived difficulty is a subjective
measurement method used by practitioners and sports
scientists to assess the psychophysiological stress
experienced by an athlete during training or
competition. A variety of scales are used to assess
perceived difficulty (Borg 6
–
20, CR-10, CR100).
The perceived training difficulty method is widely used
to determine training load in team and individual
sports. Practitioners using this method ask the athlete,
within 30 minutes after competition or training, how
difficult it was during training, using the Foster scale.
The corresponding value represents the intensity in
numbers and is multiplied by the total training duration
to obtain the training load value. In team sports, this
value is calculated by averaging the data of all athletes
participating in the training. In most team sports, the
average of these values, 300 to 500, is low intensity,
and 700 to 1000 is high intensity. Some practitioners
tend to exclude the warm-up and cool-down portions
of the exercise. However, the estimated difficulty
ratings cover the entire workout. Therefore,
practitioners are advised not to discount the warm-up
and cool-down sections when assessing the level of
perceived difficulty.
Training loads of resistance exercises are determined
by multiplying the number of repetitions performed in
the exercise by the level of perceived difficulty. But
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these estimates may be wrong. Within the same
exercise, there is a difference in perceived difficulty
and the div's response to stress between repeated
repetitions with a light load and repeated repetitions
with a heavy load. At the same time, the level of
difficulty is also affected by the duration of rest
intervals between loads. For example, Kraft et al. In
their study, there was a difference in perceived
difficulty levels between 180-second and 90-second
rest intervals between sets in strength training, and
they noted that difficulty levels increased as rest
intervals were shortened. They examined acute
responses and strength gains at different training
loads and rest intervals and noted that low-load
training with short rest intervals (30 seconds) can
induce high metabolic stress, high-load training and
long rest intervals. will have more power. In this
context, practitioners should also consider the
parameters of training volume and internal training
frequency when assessing the difficulty level of
resistance training.
Hormonal, biochemical, immunological loads
Many studies, including hormonal, biochemical and
immunological assessments, have been conducted to
monitor the div's response to stress such as
overload, overtraining, fatigue, stress and illness. In
addition, the study of relevant literature mainly
examines the parameters of testosterone, creatine
kinase, cortisol, immunoglobulin A and blood lactate in
hormonal, biochemical and immunological studies
associated with internal exercise training.
Testosterone
Testosterone is an anabolic hormone responsible for
many div functions, including growth, development
and protein synthesis. It is said to be a parameter used
to monitor fatigue during exercise and changes caused
by fatigue. Monitoring testosterone levels in athletes
suggests that it may help determine the types of
training that should be used. For example, Beaven et
al. In their study, they examined the hormonal
responses of athletes to 4 different training protocols
and found that the protocol that maximized
testosterone response produced the greatest training
gains. In another study, Michailidis looked at players'
testosterone levels before, mid- and post-season and
noticed an 11.6% increase in testosterone levels at the
end of the pre-season compared to mid-season. During
the season, this increase was 12.1%, but at the end of
the season it was lower than the initial level, the
difference is significant. season. Additionally, when
planning exercises based on these observations,
practitioners should consider factors such as the
player's age, sleep, stress, diet, physical activity,
circadian rhythm, and location.
Cortisol
Cortisol, a glucocorticoid released by the adrenal
cortex in response to stress, is a catabolic hormone
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that plays an important role in metabolism and
immune function. The release of cortisol depends on
the intensity, duration and type of exercise. A review
of the literature revealed numerous studies on cortisol
release in athletes. For example, Cook et al. In their
study, they examined cortisol levels in elite and non-
elite athletes in various fields and found that elite
athletes had higher cortisol levels than non-elite
athletes. They studied cortisol levels in professional
football coaches before, during and after play and
reported that there was a significant increase.
Research has shown that the release of cortisol is
associated with increased workload and stress, and
this release is similar to this increase.
Testosterone/cortisol ratio
The testosterone to cortisol ratio is often used by
sports scientists to identify overtraining syndrome in
athletes. In this syndrome, it may take weeks or
months to reduce the cumulative stress levels caused
by overtraining or undertraining. Athletes with
symptoms of overtraining syndrome have been noted
to have a decreased T/C ratio, and there is research
showing that this condition is associated with
increased proteolysis and decreased protein synthesis.
Although many studies show that low T/C increases
stress levels in athletes, some studies have conflicting
results. In this context, practitioners should continually
monitor the effects of the training programs they
provide on athletes, rather than relying on a single
parameter to assess these effects.
lactate
Lactate, widely used in sports science, was discovered
and characterized in sour milk by Carl Wilhelm Scheele
in 1780. About 70 years later, studies showing the
formation of lactate in human blood were first
reported by Johann Joseph Scherer, and in the early
20th century, English physiologists W. M. Fletcher and
F. G. Hopkins observed that muscles continued to
contract, producing lactate in the absence of oxygen. .
. . Lactate estimates, which are actively used in sports
science with the widespread use of portable
measurement methods, are one of the important
indicators of internal load. An increase in blood lactate
levels occurs during supramaximal or maximal exercise
during competition or training. Although most studies
have adopted an aerobic threshold of 4 mmol/L, it has
been noted that individual differences may exist and
these individual differences should be taken into
account when planning training. For example,
Kawczynski et al. In their study, they noted that the
mean post-race blood lactate value in elite 100-meter
runners was 14.6 ± 1.5. Blood lactate levels are known
to change at different times after exercise. Invasive
methods are often used when measuring lactate levels.
These methods create many difficulties for
practitioners and the people they use. However, with
the
development
of
technology,
innovative
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approaches in this area are emerging. With newly
developed devices, lactate values can be assessed non-
invasively. In this context, it is expected that these
assessments will be used more frequently by sport
scientists and practitioners in the near future.
Creatine kinase
Creatine kinase levels, assessed to identify biochemical
responses to changes in exercise stress, have been
shown to correlate with exercise-induced muscle
damage. For example, Pascoal et al. In their study, they
examined an 11-week training period in football players
and noted that creatine kinase levels increased by 64
percent at the end of the training period. In a similar
study, Meyer et al. studied creatine kinase levels in elite
soccer players at the beginning and mid-season and
found that creatine kinase levels increased mid-season.
When testing creatine kinase levels, practitioners
should be aware that values can vary depending on
many variables. It is known that estimates may vary
between individuals and depend on the type of training
used and the structure of the sports network.
Therefore, individual training load along with creatine
kinase values should be taken into account and
analyzed for better interpretation.
Immunoglobin A
Immunological measurements are taken to assess the
effects of physiological stress in response to exercise.
Excessive training can suppress the immune system
and predispose athletes to such diseases. A review of
the literature reveals that there are a limited number of
immunological assessments and that assessment of
immunoglobulin A antibodies is often included in
immunological studies related to sports science. For
example, Owen et al. In their studies, they noted that
immunoglobulin A levels in elite football players are
significantly reduced after high-intensity training, and
emphasized that immunoglobulin A levels must be
regularly monitored during training to prevent such
diseases. upper respiratory tract infections and take
precautions. In a similar study, Freitas et al.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
It is known that assessing the internal loads that arise
during training or competition is very important for
coaches and athletes. With these assessments,
situations that negatively impact performance, such as
injury, illness, stress and overload, can be predicted so
that the athlete can participate most effectively in
activities such as training and competition. It has been
noted that different methods are used to assess
internal loads. These methods used should be selected
according to the characteristics of the sports field and
the training being used. In addition, we should not
forget that the load on the div is individual. Ignoring
these differences, especially in team sports, can lead to
insufficient training results. The cumulative effect of
training can lead to decreased performance in the
athlete, as well as injury and loss of motivation. In this
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context, athletes' internal monitoring of workload
should be regularly assessed and the training
structures performed should be adjusted in
accordance with these assessments. In addition, we
should not forget that psychological factors are
another parameter that should be monitored along
with physiological load. It is believed that the joint
consideration of physiological and psychological stress
when assessing the performance of athletes by
coaches and medical practitioners gives more effective
results.
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(FMS),
POSTURAL
(BALANCE)
CONTROL, AND SELF-PERCEPTION DURING
GYMNASTICS TRAINING. Modern Science and
Research, 2(9), 204-210.
Volume 03 Issue 12-2023
56
American Journal Of Social Sciences And Humanity Research
(ISSN
–
2771-2141)
VOLUME
03
ISSUE
12
P
AGES
:
47-56
SJIF
I
MPACT
FACTOR
(2021:
5.
993
)
(2022:
6.
015
)
(2023:
7.
164
)
OCLC
–
1121105677
Publisher:
Oscar Publishing Services
Servi
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