Volume 04 Issue 11-2024
59
International Journal Of Law And Criminology
(ISSN
–
2771-2214)
VOLUME
04
ISSUE
11
P
AGES
:
59-67
OCLC
–
1121105677
Publisher:
Oscar Publishing Services
Servi
ABSTRACT
This article discusses aspects and integration characteristics of international migration in the world and regions. Based
on statistical information, the main trends of the migration movement and prospects for the development of the labor
market are determined. The author analyzed the data on priority country directions of labor migration from
Uzbekistan and the state of money transfers on a global, regional and national scale. Information on domestic legal
policy and ratified international agreements is summarized. He proposed possible solutions to improve research tools
in the study of migration processes.
KEYWORDS
labor migrants, international migration, migration corridors, sub-regions, positive effects, World Bank, remittances,
pandemic, system of safe, orderly and legal labor migration, reintegration, International Labour Organization,
сonvention, treaty, agreement.
INTRODUCTION
The concept of labour migration in the context of
globalisation is becoming an integral part of economic
and social processes. Labour migration between
different countries acts not only as a factor providing
labour force, but also as a stimulus for economic
growth. In particular, labour migration is one of the
main sources of support for the national economy, as
remittances of labour migrants play an important role
in replenishing state income. Thus, an in-depth study
and analysis of labour migration processes is of
significance for both public policy and the international
community.
However, labour migration involves many complexities
and challenges. These include the need for effective
migration management, protection of migrants' rights
Research Article
LABOR MIGRATION: GLOBAL AND REGIONAL CHARACTERISTICS IN THE
CONTEXT OF REMITTANCES
Submission Date:
November 11, 2024,
Accepted Date:
November 16, 2024,
Published Date:
November 24, 2024
Crossref doi:
https://doi.org/10.37547/ijlc/Volume04Issue11-08
Kamilov Oybek Xamidjonovich
Independent Researcher Of Tashkent State University Of Law, Uzbekistan
Journal
Website:
https://theusajournals.
com/index.php/ijlc
Copyright:
Original
content from this work
may be used under the
terms of the creative
commons
attributes
4.0 licence.
Volume 04 Issue 11-2024
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Publisher:
Oscar Publishing Services
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and interests, as well as minimising negative
consequences such as brain drain and social risks.
Labour migration is becoming an increasingly complex
and dynamic phenomenon that can be observed in all
regions of the world. In certain migration corridors,
such as between Asia and the Arab States and in South-
East Asia, the number of international migrants, the
majority of whom are migrant workers, has tripled
since 1990 [1].
According to expert estimates, temporary labour
migration, especially of low-skilled workers, now
exceeds flows of highly skilled labour migrants, and
this poses a serious global challenge in terms of
managing decent work and reducing the costs of
migration of this category of labour migrants [1, P.4].
According to the International Organization for
Migration, the total number of people living in a
country other than their country of birth is 281 million
(3.6 per cent of the world's population), which is 128
million more than in 1990 and more than three times
higher than in 1970 (84 million) [2].
At the same time, the total number of labour migrants
in the world is 169 million people, of whom 99 million
are men and 70 million are women [3].
As can be seen from the general flow of human
mobility, labour migration is the largest and most
geographically
widespread
type
of
overseas
movement. In view of this, it is important to look at
migration trends from a labour perspective.
It should be noted that more than two thirds of all
labour migrants were concentrated in high-income
countries, with some 60.6 per cent concentrated in
three subregions: 24.2 per cent in Northern, Southern
and Western Europe; 22.1 per cent in North America;
and 14.3 per cent in the Arab countries.
The importance of these three subregions in terms of
the number of international migrant workers they
receive has not diminished over time. According to
previous estimates, the same three subregions
account for the largest share of all migrant workers:
60.2 per cent in 2013 and 60.8 per cent in 2017 [3, p.14].
However, since the beginning of the coronavirus
pandemic, the rapid growth of labour migration has
slowed. International experts have noted the negative
impact of the coronavirus pandemic, including on
employment [4]. After three years, human mobility has
recovered significantly compared to the period of the
COVID-19 pandemic, significant transport and logistics
restrictions have been lifted in many countries, and
entry and exit conditions for citizens have been
relaxed.
The ILO estimates that the employment deficit, which
refers to the number of people who want to work but
are not employed, will be 402 million in 2024. This
figure includes 183 million people who are considered
unemployed. At the same time, the number of
informally employed workers, which was around 1.7
billion in 2005, will increase to 2.0 billion in 2024 [5].
Assessments of migration processes are impossible
without the collection of factual data and statistical
information, which is undoubtedly a key tool in the
study of migration issues. ILO, World Bank, IOM, OSER
and other international organisations and institutions
(foundations) collect global multidimensional data on
human resources, labour market development and
international remittances, despite differences in
definitions and methodological problems in collecting
accurate statistics [6].
However, the data may not capture unrecorded flows
through informal channels, so the true magnitude of
global remittances is likely to be higher than available
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estimates. Similar estimates of unreported remittances
have previously been reported for Uzbekistan [7].
The following contemporary characteristics and
attributes of labour migration in global and regional
dimensions can be identified and summarised in the
scientific and expert analytical literature:
- Demographic factors play an important role in the
formation of labour migration flows: in developed
countries, the challenges will be related to the
shortage of skilled workers in various sectors of the
economy; in developing countries with high
demographic indicators, there will be a certain degree
of pressure on their own labour markets;
- Labour migration, regardless of gender subjectivity,
will be closely intertwined with other types of human
mobility, such as educational, forced, climatic, etc.
migration.
- Regular migration opportunities from developing
countries are decreasing, while migration routes for
developed countries have increased. This, in turn,
provokes irregular (undocumented) migration in
developing countries, including through asylum
mechanisms (not always substantiated by the reasons
for the application);
- Labour migration has traditionally been seen in the
context of positive economic effects, both for
receiving countries in terms of saturating labour
markets, and for sending countries to which migrant
workers' remittances are sent. In this context,
remittances have recently been considered as an
investment category in their own right;
- Interpreting interstate relations in the field of
migration through the prism of theorising such
relatively new fields as 'migration diplomacy' or
'transnational social contract'.
In this context, a number of positive aspects of
individual transnational remittances in the context of
external labour migration [1, pp. 17-18] that directly or
indirectly affect the socio-economic growth of states
are identified:
a) Remittances serve as an important means of poverty
alleviation for migrant families and their communities;
b) Remittances can help reduce child labour and
finance schooling and health care costs where these
are not fully covered by national budget allocations;
c) When properly integrated into the labour market,
migrants can dramatically increase per capita income in
remittance-receiving countries by increasing the ratio
of the employed to the economically active population;
d) Upon returning home, migrants of all skill levels can
make a significant contribution to the economic
development of their country of origin by investing
financial, human and social capital acquired abroad,
such as new skills, ideas and know-how;
e) The increasing number of highly educated migrants
has a significant impact on the level of productivity, the
extent of innovation and the development of
entrepreneurship;
f) Migrants also play a role in facilitating trade and
investment flows and the cross-border transfer of
knowledge and technology;
g) As consumers of goods and services, migrants
stimulate demand in the domestic market and increase
the flow of money and goods, thereby promoting
economic mobility.
Available data show an overall increase in remittances
in recent decades, from $128 billion in 2000 to $831
billion in 2022. In 2022, global remittances reach the
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$831 billion mark, up from $717 billion in 2020 and $791
billion in 2021.
Looking back, traditionally low- and middle-income
countries continued to receive significant amounts of
remittances, which increased by 8 per cent between
2021 and 2022, from $599 billion to $647 billion[8].
In 2022, China, France, India, Mexico and the
Philippines were among the top five remittance-
receiving countries. At the same time, India received
$111 billion in remittances, an unprecedented result
that surpassed the $100 billion milestone for the first
time. Among European countries, France and Germany
were among the top 10 [2, p. 36].
Meanwhile, the main source countries of international
remittances are expected to be countries with high per
capita income. For example, the United States has
consistently remained the largest remittance sending
country over the decades, with total remittances of
$79.15 billion, followed by Saudi Arabia ($39.35 billion),
Switzerland ($31.91 billion) and Germany ($25.60
billion). ($25.60 billion) [2, p.36-37].
The IOM suppose that the ratio of GDP to the volume
of remittances to a given country may indicates the
level of 'dependency' of that country on international
remittances. The top five remittance-receiving
countries by GDP share in 2022 are Tajikistan (51 per
cent), followed by Tonga (44 per cent), Lebanon (36
per cent), Samoa (34 per cent) and Kyrgyzstan (31 per
cent). In this context, experts note that dependence
on remittances also makes a country's economy more
vulnerable to sudden changes and downturns in
inflows or exchange rate fluctuations [2, p. 38].
Meanwhile, remittance inflows increased most in Latin
America and the Caribbean (7.5 per cent), South Asia
(5.2 per cent) and East Asia and the Pacific (4.8 per
cent) [8, p. 25]. At the same time, the Middle East and
North Africa region saw a decline of almost 15 per cent,
and Europe and Central Asia a decline of 10.3 per cent.
As noted above, remittances to Europe and Central
Asia fell by about 10%, reaching $71 billion in 2023. The
main reasons for the decline include the outflow of
migrants from the Russian Federation and the
slowdown in remittances, devaluation of the ruble
against the dollar, etc.
A similar decline in remittances to the Europe and
Central Asia region has been observed before (with the
exception of 2022). In particular, the economic crisis of
2020 was not unprecedented compared to the past
crises of 2009 and 2015, when remittances to the
region fell by 11 and 15 per cent, respectively [9, P.22].
While the Russian Federation remains the main
destination for labour migrants from Central Asia, the
directions of migration corridors are transforming,
with an increasing number of migrants from the
subregion moving to the European Union and Asia.
Between 2016 and 2019, the number of Central Asian
nationals with study, work or residence permits in the
European Union increased by 14 per cent, while the
number of migrants from countries such as Uzbekistan
and Kazakhstan moving to the Republic of Korea
increased by 92 per cent from almost 10,000 to more
than 20,000.
In discussing the risks of countries' dependence on
remittances, the IOM notes Uzbekistan's efforts to
diversify the countries of destination for its migrant
workers.
In our view, the concentration of migrants mainly in
high-income countries can be seen as a factor of not
only economic but also potential political dependence
of labour-exporting countries. In this regard, it is
advisable to consider measures to diversify the
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directions of labour migration, which will reduce
dependence on a limited number of receiving countries
and mitigate the risks of economic and political crises
that may arise as a result of changes in the migration
policies of these states. Such diversification of labour
migration destinations will reduce the potential risks of
dependence on individual countries and increase the
resilience of the country's economy to external
changes.
In our country, on the other hand, comprehensive
tasks related to external labour migration are
entrusted to the Migration Agency under the Cabinet
of Ministers. Analysis and summary of data on the
national migration flow shows that as of 1 January 2023
the number of labour migrants from Uzbekistan was
slightly more than 2 million people, of which men -
1,474 thousand, women - 596 thousand. [10]. The main
countries of stay of migrants are the Russian
Federation - more than 1 million, Kazakhstan - 347
thousand, Turkey - 140 thousand, Republic of Korea - 25
thousand and others.
It should be noted that the above information is
relative due to the dynamics and diversity of the
processes observed in the regions where our migrants
reside. As we can see, the traditional direction of
Uzbek labour migration remains the Russian
Federation and Kazakhstan due to the existing
historical-political,
geographical
and
cultural
circumstances. In turn, the Korean direction is the most
'desirable' among Uzbeks due to relatively high wages
and comfortable living and working conditions.
According to the Central Bank of the Republic of
Uzbekistan [11], the volume of receipts through
international money transfer systems in 2021 will be
$8.1 billion, which is 34% more than the indicators of the
Central Bank of the Republic of Uzbekistan [11]. This is
34% more than the indicators for 2020 and 2019 ($6.0
billion). In 2022, Uzbekistan received a record $16.9
billion in remittances, 2.1 times more than in 2021 [12].
In 2023, the flow of international cross-border
remittances returned to its historical trend and its
volume decreased by 1.5 times compared to 2022,
amounting to more than $11.4 billion. It is worth noting
that in 2023 there was a decrease in the volume of
cross-border remittances from Russia, while the
volume of receipts from Turkey (1.3 times), Korea (1.2
times), Lithuania (2.3 times) and Poland (1.8 times)
increased by more than $155 million [13].
These structural changes are explained by a decline in
economic activity in the main partner countries and a
shift in the flow of labour migration from traditional
countries to other alternative countries as a result of
the introduction of migrant employment programmes
on an institutional basis within the country within the
framework of intergovernmental agreements (Annual
Report).
From January to September 2024, the volume of
remittances to Uzbekistan increased by 34.8%,
reaching $11.3 billion. Remittances from South Korea,
the UK, Poland and the UAE showed significant
growth, while the share of remittances from Russia
continues to decline. According to the Central Bank,
remittances from Russia increased by 35% to $8.75
billion, but its share decreased from 77% (at the end of
the first half of the year) to 75.3%. Transfers from South
Korea totalled $420 million (+76%), from Kazakhstan -
$625 million, from the US - $415 million, from Turkey -
$291 million, from the UK - $93 million (+67%), and from
Poland - $48 million, which is almost double the
previous figures.
In general, by the end of 2024, the Central Bank
forecasts growth in cross-border transfers by 10-12% to
$12-12.5 billion. High growth rates of cross-border
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remittances compared to the previous year contribute
to the increase in household incomes and play an
important role in ensuring stabilisation of the national
currency exchange rate in the domestic foreign
exchange market.
Thus, according to expert estimates, from 2018 to 2023,
cross-border remittances from labour migrants
accounted for 16% of total aggregate household
income. Their inflow compensated for most of the
trade balance deficit and was one of the main sources
of supply in the foreign exchange market.
In view of the above, due to the huge importance of
labour migration in the CIS and Central Asia region,
which is specifically confirmed by the volume of
remittances, it is considered appropriate to define an
agenda for regional cooperation
to introduce the practice of interstate joint surveys
(cross-sectional, longitudinal, etc.) to include issues
related to migration in general and labour migration in
particular.
In this context, on the basis of leading foreign
experience, as well as taking into account the specifics
of the national communication system, on the basis of
the functioning portal ‘labour migration’ it is
considered appropriate to improve the mechanisms
for processing and analysis of information by
introducing the recording and collection of generalised
data (including gender-sensitive data) on the entire
migration chain: pre-departure preparation, departure,
stay, work, return home and reintegration.
As an example, the research tools of data collection of
the World Bank, IMF, as well as migration portals of the
European Union, such as ‘Migration to Europe’ and
‘Labour Mobility in Europe’ could be in focus. It is
noteworthy that over the past few years in Uzbekistan,
systemic decisions in the field of effective migration
management have been enshrined and adopted at the
legislative level. As a result, the national legal field [14-
18] comprehensively covers and regulates a wide range
of areas and defines multifaceted, but at the same time
interrelated and mutually dependent targeted tasks,
among which the following should be identified:
-
Improvement of support mechanisms for citizens
engaged in labour activity abroad;
-
Formation of an effective system of legal
protection both within and outside the country;
-
creating reliable instruments of social support for
labour migrants and members of their families;
-
ensuring the reintegration of persons returning
from labour migration and the creation of
favourable conditions for entrepreneurial activity;
-
introducing a system of organized forms of
external labour migration and professional
training;
-
Ensuring coordinated activities of authorized
bodies and heads of local authorities in the
framework of the implementation of approved
programmes, measures and tasks.
It should also be noted that Uzbekistan continues to
work actively on the ratification of a number of
international agreements, conventions and treaties
covering a wide range of issues related to migration
policy, legal regulation of relations and cooperation
with other states. In general terms, all these treaties
and agreements can be divided into two main groups:
multilateral and bilateral international treaties [15].
Among the most important multilateral international
legal instruments ratified by Uzbekistan and of
particular importance for strengthening Uzbekistan's
position in the global legal arena are the Conventions
on Forced or Compulsory Labour, Abolition of Forced
Labour, Discrimination (Employment and Occupation),
Principles of Occupational Safety and Health, and the
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Protocol to Convention 29 of the International Labour
Organization (1930) on Forced Labour. Undoubtedly,
all these instruments constitute the material fabric of
the global legal space in the field of migration and
labour.
At the same time The Republic of Uzbekistan is a party
to the Agreement on the Establishment of an Advisory
Council on Labour, Migration and Social Protection of
the Population of the CIS Member States and has also
acceded to the Protocol amending the above
Agreement.
In addition, our country has continued its active course
of regional cooperation in this field and joined the
Agreement on Cooperation in the Field of Employment
Promotion
of
the
Member
States
of
the
Commonwealth of Independent States. Thanks to
state measures and legislative initiatives in recent
years, the level of bilateral relations and, consequently,
the result of intergovernmental and interdepartmental
agreements has increased significantly.
Labour migration thus contributes to the support of
labour-exporting countries through remittances,
which help to reduce poverty and promote socio-
economic development. At the same time, labour
migration provides opportunities for professional
development and knowledge sharing, which has a
positive impact on host countries. Nevertheless, labour
migration remains a complex and multifaceted process
that requires effective management and cooperation
at the international level. Taking into account the data
and trends studied, it can be concluded that there is a
need to further improve migration policies, to protect
the rights of migrants and to develop integration
mechanisms for their successful reintegration into
society.
In summary, it should be noted that international legal
cooperation facilitated by IOM in this area will allow
participating States to better understand the different
aspects of migration systems and better implement
policies to manage external and internal labour
processes. Moreover, migration policy strategising at
all levels of government also should be at the
forefront.
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поощрению
граждан,
выезжающих
в
организованную трудовую миграцию за
рубеж»
№ПП
-
5205
от
30.07.2021г.
//
https://lex.uz/ru/docs/5544376;
18.
Указ Президента Республики Узбекистан «О
дополнительных
мерах
по
совершенствованию процессов трудовой
миграции
и
поддержке
лиц,
осуществляющих
временную
трудовую
деятельность за рубежом» №УП
-
59 от
04.04.2024г. // https://lex.uz/ru/docs/6868873;
19.
Указ Президента Республики Узбекистан «О
первоочередных
мерах
по
реформированию
системы
управления
миграционными процессами» №УП
-
162 от
17.10.2024г.
https://www.lex.uz/ru/docs/7170461.
