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THE INFLUENCE OF THE OTTOMAN TURKS ON THE BUKHARA, KHIVA, AND
KOKAND KHANATES
Xomidov Soxibjon Sobirjon ugli
PhD candidate in the History of Uzbekistan at Namangan State University
Phone number: +998910514043
Email:
Abstract:
This article examines the multifaceted influence of the Ottoman Turks on the
Bukhara, Khiva, and Kokand khanates during the 19th and early 20th centuries, with particular
emphasis on political, diplomatic, cultural, and religious dimensions. Through an analysis of
archival documents, diplomatic correspondence, trade records, and contemporary accounts, the
study elucidates the ways in which the Ottoman Empire projected influence into Central Asia,
reinforcing Islamic identity, supporting administrative and educational reforms, and facilitating
transregional networks. The research highlights the reciprocal nature of these interactions,
demonstrating how Central Asian khanates selectively adapted Ottoman models to their local
contexts while negotiating autonomy under the pressures of Russian expansion. By situating
these relations within broader geopolitical and socio-cultural frameworks, the article provides a
nuanced understanding of the historical processes that shaped the development of Central Asian
polities and their enduring engagement with the Ottoman world.
Keywords:
Ottoman empire, central asia, bukhara, khiva, kokand, diplomatic relations, cultural
influence, political agency, islamic identity
Introduction:
The 19th and early 20th centuries marked a transformative period in
Central Asia, during which the Bukhara, Khiva, and Kokand khanates navigated a complex
geopolitical landscape shaped by the encroachment of imperial powers, regional conflicts, and
transregional interactions. Among the most significant yet understudied dimensions of this era
was the influence of the Ottoman Empire on these Central Asian polities, encompassing
political, diplomatic, cultural, educational, and religious spheres. The period from 1865 to 1910
witnessed the emergence of sustained engagement between Ottoman authorities and the
khanates, which was motivated by a combination of geopolitical considerations, shared Islamic
identity, and the pursuit of modernization initiatives. This engagement was neither unilateral
nor purely symbolic; rather, it represented a complex interplay between Ottoman strategic
projection and the autonomous agency of Central Asian actors, who sought to leverage Ottoman
support to consolidate internal authority, maintain political stability, and counterbalance
Russian expansionism. Archival evidence indicates that the khanates actively solicited Ottoman
assistance, sending envoys to Istanbul to negotiate diplomatic recognition, military support, and
cultural cooperation[1]. The Ottoman Empire, under the leadership of reform-minded sultans
and bureaucrats, responded with initiatives designed to project influence and reinforce Islamic
solidarity. These initiatives included the sponsorship of educational institutions, the dispatch of
scholars and religious authorities, the provision of guidance on administrative and legal reforms,
and the facilitation of trade networks. Through these channels, the Ottoman Empire sought not
only to strengthen bilateral ties but also to assert itself as a central actor in the broader Islamic
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
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world, countering Russian geopolitical ambitions and reinforcing its ideological legitimacy.
Trade relations played a particularly important role in Ottoman engagement with the khanates,
as commercial networks enabled the circulation of textiles, agricultural products, artisanal
goods, and financial practices. Ottoman merchants and intermediaries operated alongside local
traders, fostering economic interdependence while simultaneously facilitating cultural and
intellectual exchange. Educational initiatives further reinforced these connections, with
Ottoman-style madrasas established in Bukhara, Khiva, and Kokand, and Central Asian
students sponsored to study in Istanbul and other Ottoman centers. These exchanges promoted
the dissemination of legal, administrative, and intellectual frameworks, contributing to the
modernization of local governance and the cultivation of an elite cadre attuned to both regional
and transregional developments. Religious and ideological factors underpinned the
sustainability of these interactions, as the shared framework of Islamic identity and pan-Islamic
consciousness created a sense of solidarity that transcended political boundaries. Central Asian
elites, scholars, and religious authorities often perceived Ottoman engagement as a source of
spiritual and intellectual support, particularly in the context of Russian imperial encroachment,
which threatened both political autonomy and cultural-religious integrity. The interplay
between Ottoman initiative and local adaptation thus reflected a negotiation of influence in
which Central Asian actors retained considerable agency, selectively appropriating Ottoman
models and adapting them to local contexts while remaining attentive to indigenous
sociopolitical structures. Furthermore, the period saw the emergence of new forms of
diplomatic, cultural, and intellectual exchange, facilitated by travel, correspondence, and the
circulation of printed materials. Ottoman administrative manuals, legal codes, and educational
curricula were studied and selectively implemented within the khanates, contributing to
incremental reforms in governance, judicial practice, and educational standards. These
processes fostered the development of transregional networks linking Central Asia with the
Ottoman world, reinforcing both political alignment and cultural cohesion. The Ottoman
influence also provided a framework for the negotiation of identity, enabling local elites to
articulate modernizing agendas that drew upon Islamic solidarity while maintaining traditional
legitimacy[2]. Historiographically, the study of Ottoman influence in Central Asia has often
been marginalized, with most scholarship focusing on Russian expansion or the internal
dynamics of the khanates. Nevertheless, emerging research highlights the importance of
Ottoman-Central Asian interactions in shaping political, cultural, and religious trajectories. By
analyzing archival materials, contemporary accounts, and scholarly interpretations, it is possible
to reconstruct the multidimensional nature of these relations, revealing a landscape
characterized by reciprocal influence, strategic negotiation, and the co-construction of political
and cultural frameworks. In conclusion, the influence of the Ottoman Turks on Bukhara, Khiva,
and Kokand between 1865 and 1910 was a decisive factor in shaping the political, economic,
cultural, and intellectual evolution of these khanates. The interactions were marked by complex
negotiations, the selective adaptation of Ottoman models, and the pursuit of both internal
stability and transregional connectivity. By situating these developments within the broader
context of imperial expansion, Islamic solidarity, and modernization initiatives, this study
provides a comprehensive framework for understanding the enduring significance of Ottoman
engagement in Central Asia, highlighting the intertwined dynamics of agency, influence, and
adaptation that defined the historical trajectory of the region during this critical period.
Literature review:
The historiography concerning the influence of the Ottoman Turks
on the Bukhara, Khiva, and Kokand khanates during the late 19th and early 20th centuries has
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gradually expanded, revealing a complex matrix of political, cultural, economic, and religious
interactions that have been historically underexamined. Zumrad Rakhmonkulova emphasizes
the proactive role of the Ottoman Empire in projecting influence across Central Asia,
highlighting how Istanbul sought to establish diplomatic recognition, provide guidance on
administrative reforms, and support educational and religious institutions within the khanates[3].
Her analysis, grounded in extensive archival research from Ottoman and Central Asian sources,
demonstrates that Ottoman engagement was deliberate and multifaceted, encompassing both
ideological projection and pragmatic strategies aimed at consolidating influence while fostering
transregional Islamic solidarity. Rakhmonkulova underscores that the khanates, in turn, actively
engaged with Ottoman initiatives, sending envoys and negotiating treaties that reflected both a
desire for external support and a strategic calculation to maintain autonomy under the growing
pressure of Russian expansionism[4]. Complementing this perspective, Abduvali Berdiev
provides a comprehensive study of the foreign diplomatic strategies of Central Asian khanates,
situating Ottoman interactions within a broader framework of multilateral relations[5]. Berdiev
contends that while the Ottoman Empire offered ideological, cultural, and administrative
models, the khanates demonstrated considerable agency by selectively adapting these
frameworks to their local sociopolitical realities. He highlights instances in which Bukhara,
Khiva, and Kokand modulated their reception of Ottoman advisors, educational curricula, and
administrative guidance to reinforce internal governance structures and maintain political
legitimacy. Berdiev further argues that these interactions were reciprocal, with Central Asian
actors influencing Ottoman perceptions and policies through petitions, diplomatic envoys, and
participation in intellectual networks[6]. Together, these studies reveal that the influence of the
Ottoman Turks on the Central Asian khanates cannot be understood as unilateral or merely
symbolic; rather, it was mediated by local agency, strategic adaptation, and the broader
geopolitical context of Russian expansion and regional consolidation. The scholarship
collectively illustrates the multidimensional nature of Ottoman-Central Asian relations,
encompassing diplomacy, trade, education, religious collaboration, and cultural exchange,
while demonstrating the iterative processes through which influence was negotiated,
implemented, and localized. By synthesizing the perspectives of Rakhmonkulova and Berdiev,
it becomes evident that the Ottoman engagement with Bukhara, Khiva, and Kokand played a
pivotal role in shaping governance, reinforcing Islamic identity, and fostering transregional
networks, thereby providing a richer understanding of Central Asia’s historical trajectory in the
late 19th and early 20th centuries.
Methodology:
This study employs a comprehensive and integrative methodological
framework to examine the influence of the Ottoman Turks on the Bukhara, Khiva, and Kokand
khanates between 1865 and 1910, combining historical, diplomatic, economic, and cultural
approaches within a single analytical design. The research is grounded in the systematic
analysis of primary sources, including archival diplomatic correspondence, official decrees,
treaties, trade records, travelogues, and contemporary newspapers, drawn from the National
Archive of Uzbekistan, Ottoman Imperial Archives, and selected Russian repositories, ensuring
empirical rigor and historical veracity. Historical-comparative analysis is employed to identify
patterns of interaction, continuity, and divergence across political, economic, and cultural
domains, revealing how local khanates selectively appropriated Ottoman models and adapted
them to their socio-political contexts. Complementing this, a contextual-analytical approach
situates the Ottoman engagement within broader geopolitical and socio-cultural currents, such
as Russian imperial expansion, pan-Islamic ideological movements, and the transregional flow
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
ISSN: 2692-5206, Impact Factor: 12,23
American Academic publishers, volume 05, issue 09,2025
Journal:
https://www.academicpublishers.org/journals/index.php/ijai
page 168
of knowledge, trade, and cultural norms. Qualitative content analysis of textual and
documentary evidence enables a detailed interpretation of ideological, religious, and
administrative dimensions of Ottoman influence, while historiographical synthesis integrates
prior scholarly perspectives to provide comparative frameworks for understanding bilateral
interactions. By combining archival research, historical-comparative methodology, and
contextual analysis, this study reconstructs the multidimensional character of Ottoman
influence, highlighting the iterative negotiation of power, cultural exchange, and institutional
adaptation that defined the political, intellectual, and socio-cultural evolution of the Bukhara,
Khiva, and Kokand khanates during this transformative period.
Results:
The analysis of archival documents, diplomatic correspondence, and
contemporary accounts reveals that the Ottoman Turks exerted a multifaceted influence on the
Bukhara, Khiva, and Kokand khanates during the period 1865–1910, encompassing political,
economic, cultural, and religious dimensions. The khanates actively engaged with Ottoman
authorities, seeking diplomatic recognition, military advice, educational support, and
administrative guidance, while simultaneously negotiating their autonomy under the expanding
influence of the Russian Empire. Political results of this engagement include the consolidation
of diplomatic channels, the negotiation of treaties, and the enhancement of administrative
structures informed by Ottoman models, which strengthened the governance capacities of the
khanates. Economically, trade relations facilitated the circulation of goods, financial practices,
and commercial networks that connected Central Asia with broader Ottoman markets,
enhancing both material wealth and cross-regional interaction. Cultural and educational
influence is evidenced by the establishment of Ottoman-style madrasas, the sponsorship of
students to study in Istanbul, and the adoption of Ottoman legal and administrative frameworks,
which contributed to the intellectual and institutional modernization of the khanates. Religious
and ideological outcomes were equally significant, as shared Islamic identity and pan-Islamic
consciousness provided a foundation for enduring transregional networks, fostering social
cohesion and intellectual collaboration between Central Asia and the Ottoman world. The
results indicate that the engagement was reciprocal and adaptive: while the Ottoman Empire
projected influence through soft power, diplomatic initiatives, and cultural diplomacy, the
Central Asian khanates selectively appropriated Ottoman practices, ensuring compatibility with
local sociopolitical structures and priorities. Collectively, these findings illuminate a period of
dynamic interaction in which bilateral relations were characterized by negotiation, adaptation,
and strategic engagement, demonstrating that Ottoman influence contributed substantively to
the political stability, economic integration, cultural development, and ideological cohesion of
Bukhara, Khiva, and Kokand, laying the foundation for enduring patterns of transregional
connectivity that shaped the subsequent evolution of Central Asian societies.
Discussion:
The scholarly discourse on the influence of the Ottoman Turks on the
Bukhara, Khiva, and Kokand khanates during the late 19th and early 20th centuries presents
divergent interpretations regarding the extent and nature of Ottoman agency versus Central
Asian autonomy. Zumrad Rakhmonkulova emphasizes that the Ottoman Empire actively sought
to shape political[7], cultural, and religious developments in the khanates through a deliberate
policy of influence, highlighting diplomatic missions, administrative guidance, and educational
sponsorship as mechanisms of strategic projection. According to Rakhmonkulova, these
initiatives were not merely reactive responses to Russian expansion but constituted a proactive
strategy aimed at consolidating Ottoman authority in the Islamic world and reinforcing
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
ISSN: 2692-5206, Impact Factor: 12,23
American Academic publishers, volume 05, issue 09,2025
Journal:
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page 169
transregional cohesion[8]. She argues that Ottoman engagement provided the khanates with
crucial ideological, administrative, and educational resources that contributed to political
stabilization, governance reforms, and the cultivation of an educated elite aligned with broader
Islamic principles. In contrast, Abduvali Berdiev foregrounds the agency of the Central Asian
khanates, contending that Bukhara, Khiva, and Kokand strategically mediated Ottoman
influence to serve local political and socio-economic objectives. Berdiev asserts that while
Ottoman engagement offered valuable cultural and administrative models, local rulers
selectively appropriated these frameworks, adapting them to indigenous governance structures,
social norms, and regional priorities. He emphasizes that the khanates’ diplomatic initiatives,
petitioning, and participation in transregional networks were not passive but actively shaped
Ottoman perceptions and policy approaches, demonstrating a reciprocal and negotiated
relationship rather than unilateral influence[9]. Berdiev further contends that the selective
adaptation of Ottoman models allowed the khanates to maintain internal legitimacy, strengthen
social cohesion, and navigate the pressures of Russian imperial expansion. The juxtaposition of
these perspectives illuminates the nuanced dynamics of Ottoman-Central Asian relations,
revealing a complex interplay between external projection of influence and local adaptation.
Integrating Rakhmonkulova’s emphasis on Ottoman strategic initiative with Berdiev’s focus on
Central Asian agency underscores that the bilateral engagement was neither entirely top-down
nor fully endogenous but involved iterative negotiation, mutual adaptation, and co-construction
of political, cultural, and educational frameworks[10]. The discussion further highlights the
importance of ideological, religious, and educational dimensions, illustrating how shared
Islamic identity and pan-Islamic consciousness reinforced the effectiveness of diplomatic,
cultural, and economic exchanges. Ultimately, this polemical engagement demonstrates that the
formation and consolidation of Ottoman-Central Asian relations between 1865 and 1910 were
shaped by a reciprocal, multidimensional process in which both Ottoman and Central Asian
actors exercised strategic influence, negotiated authority, and co-created the institutional and
ideological foundations that would leave enduring legacies in the region.
Conclusion:
The analysis of Ottoman influence on the Bukhara, Khiva, and Kokand
khanates from 1865 to 1910 reveals a complex, multidimensional, and historically significant
pattern of interactions that shaped political, economic, cultural, and religious trajectories in
Central Asia. This study demonstrates that the Ottoman Empire’s engagement was deliberate
and multifaceted, encompassing diplomatic initiatives, administrative guidance, educational
sponsorship, and the projection of Islamic ideological influence, while Central Asian khanates
actively negotiated, adapted, and selectively appropriated these models to serve local political,
social, and economic objectives.
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