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FRONTLINE JOURNALS
35
Sogdian Translations of Buddhist Texts as A Form Intercultural and
Spiritual Relationships
Mirsadik Iskhakov
Professor of Tashkent State University of Oriental Studies, Uzbekistan
A R T I C L E I N f
О
Article history:
Submission Date: 22 April 2025
Accepted Date: 18 May 2025
Published Date: 20 June 2025
VOLUME:
Vol.05 Issue06
Page No. 35-39
DOI: -
https://doi.org/10.37547/social-
A B S T R A C T
This report explores the complex and multifaceted intercultural and
spiritual interactions between the peoples of Central Asia and the Far East,
with a particular focus on the historical processes surrounding the
transmission, adaptation, and transformation of Buddhism across these
regions. Drawing on manuscript evidence, philological studies, and
comparative doctrinal analysis, the study highlights the role of the Sutra of
Golden Light as a central vehicle for cultural integration and religious
dissemination. It examines how Buddhist texts, especially in their Sogdian,
Uyghur, Chinese, and Oirat versions, not only reflected the philosophical
core of Mahayana Buddhism but were also reshaped by local linguistic,
cultural, and spiritual contexts. The report also addresses the syncretic
nature of these translations, the role of Buddhist rituals in statecraft
(particularly in Tang China), and the use of sacred texts as instruments of
moral, social, and political legitimacy. In doing so, it demonstrates how
Buddhism served as a bridge between diverse civilizations and contributed
to the historical development of religious thought and intercultural
dialogue across the Eurasian continent.
Keywords:
Buddhism, Sutra of Golden Light, Central Asia, Far East,
Sogdian translations, Uyghur Buddhism, Mahayana doctrine, religious
syncretism, intercultural dialogue, Tang dynasty, Silk Road, manuscript
culture, spiritual exchange, historical linguistics, Eurasian civilizations.
INTRODUCTION
The Sogdian translations of texts with Buddhist
content were primarily discovered at the
beginning of the 20th century by a French
archaeological expedition led by Paul Pelliot. These
manuscripts were found in the so-
called “Cave of
the Thousand Buddhas” near Dunhuang, an
important site along the Silk Road. In addition to
these, other significant fragments of Buddhist
compositions written in the Sogdian language
originate from the Turfan oasis, another major
center of manuscript culture in the region.
Chronologically, these textual monuments are
dated to the 7th
–
9th centuries CE, a period during
which Buddhism was actively spreading through
Central Asia and interacting with local Iranian-
speaking communities.
The Dunhuang manuscripts discovered by Pelliot
are currently preserved in the National Library of
France (Bibliothèque nationale de France) in Paris,
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ISSN: 2752-7018
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catalogued under the designation "P"
—
referring
to the Paul Pelliot collection. A separate portion of
manuscripts, collected by the renowned explorer
Aurel Stein, is housed in the British Library in
London under the catalogue code Or. 8212.
Furthermore, a large number of Sogdian Buddhist
fragments are kept in the collections of the
Institute of Oriental Manuscripts in Saint
Petersburg, Russia. These are classified under
various sigla, such as SI, O, and Kr.
The first scholarly publications of Sogdian
Buddhist texts were initiated by R. Gauthiot. In
1912, he published a translation of the “Vessantara
Jataka”, which is the life story of one of the previous
incarnations of the Buddha, Prince Vessantara.
This work was later reprinted in 1946 by the
eminent linguist and Iranologist Émile Benveniste.
Benveniste further contributed to the study of
these texts by publishing, in 1940, a facsimile
edition, along with transliteration, French
translation, and critical commentary of the
manuscripts preserved in the Paris collection.
The London texts, which had earlier been
published by H. Reichelt in 1928, were republished
in 1976 by D. Mackenzie, a noted scholar of Middle
Iranian languages. However, the readings and
interpretations offered by Reichelt and his
colleague O. Hansen were later revised and
corrected in many places by É. Benveniste and
Walter Bruno Henning, two of the most
authoritative figures in the study of Sogdian and
other Middle Iranian languages.
Among all the extant Sogdian-Buddhist texts, the
“Vessantara Jataka” stands out not only for its
literary and religious significance but also for its
sheer volume, consisting of 1,513 lines of text. It is
considered the most substantial and linguistically
valuable work for the study of the extinct Sogdian
language. All other Sogdian Buddhist texts are
comparatively shorter in length. For instance, the
ethical-
philosophical treatise titled “Sutra of the
Causes and Effects of Our Deeds” (Akrti anbont
paturi pustak) comprises 571 lines. The
“Vimalakīrtinirdeśa Sūtra”, another important
moral teaching, includes 207 lines, while the
“Dhūta Sūtra” has 297 lines, and the “Dhyana
Sūtra” contains 405 lines.
Of particular note among the Sogdian fragments is
a short but significant excerpt from a sutra that
condemns the consumption of alcoholic beverages.
This fragment, titled “Mastkarak chashant parghun
pustak”, consists of only 31 lines but reflects the
moral-ethical dimension of Buddhist teachings
disseminated
among
Sogdian-speaking
communities.
In addition to Jatakas and Sūtras, several
manuscripts include fragments belonging to the
genre of Dharaṇī (Buddhist magical or protective
chants). These include a 75-line fragment of the
Padmacintamaṇi Dharaṇī, as well as portions
of the
Nīlakaṇṭha Dharaṇī and others. These texts
indicate the presence of esoteric Buddhist
practices among the Sogdians and provide
invaluable insights into the transmission of
Buddhist ritual traditions in Central Asia.
Thus, the corpus of Sogdian Buddhist texts,
although fragmentary, constitutes a vital source
for the study of the religious, linguistic, and
cultural history of Iranian-speaking peoples along
the Silk Road during the early medieval period.
Their preservation in international libraries and
the ongoing efforts of philologists underscore their
global scholarly importance.
Thanks to the efforts of the first generations of
scholars
who
studied
Sogdian-Buddhist
compositions and their successors, considerable
progress has been made in identifying the sources
of Sogdian translations of Buddhist texts. Although
Sanskrit is occasionally mentioned as the source
language for some translations, it has become
evident that the majority of Sogdian translations
were based primarily on Chinese versions of the
Buddhist canon. This conclusion is supported by
textual analysis and comparative philological
research.
Further evidence of the Chinese influence comes
from the discovery that many of these Buddhist
texts were copied by Sogdian scribes in Dunhuang.
This is clearly indicated in a small colophon found
at the end of the text titled “Mastkarak chashant
parghun pustak”, which confirms its transcription
by Sogdians living in that region. A particularly
intriguing historical detail is the copying of one of
the
most
significant
Mahayana
sutras
—
Vajracchedika
Prajñaparamita
Sūtra
(The
Diamond Sutra)
—
using the Sogdian script by a
Buddhist of Turkic origin named Qutluġ, meaning
"The Fortunate One." This unique instance reflects
the multicultural and multilingual environment in
which Buddhist literature was transmitted and
preserved along the Silk Road.
While Chinese Buddhist texts formed the
foundation for most Sogdian translations,
references to Tibetan versions are also
encountered. Some manuscripts even cite Sanskrit
originals, presumably to lend the translations
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greater legitimacy and spiritual authority.
However, in a comparative philological study, the
renowned scholar David Mackenzie demonstrated
that the majority of Sogdian Buddhist texts were,
in fact, closely aligned with Chinese source
versions, both in content and in structure.
At this point, I would like to draw particular
attention to one of the most significant works in
the
religious
consciousness
of
Buddhist
communities
—the Suvarṇaprabhasa Sūtra, more
co
mmonly known as the “Sutra of Golden Light”.
This sutra, known in Chinese as Jīn guang míng jīng
and in Old Turkic as Altun Yaruk, was one of the
most widely revered Mahayana scriptures
throughout Central and East Asia. It served not
only as a text of devotional practice but also as a
spiritual guide for moral purification.
The Sutra of Golden Light elaborates detailed
rituals and practices for the spiritual cleansing of
sins in accordance with Mahayana Buddhist
principles. This suggests that the Sogdian
Buddhists of Dunhuang
—
and possibly those along
broader segments of the Silk Road
—
were
adherents of Mahayana traditions, embracing its
doctrines of compassion, karmic retribution, and
spiritual evolution. The sutra also deals
extensively with metaphysical concepts such as
karma
—
the law of moral causation
—
and outlines
how individuals, through acts of piety, merit
accumulation, and meditative practices, can purify
themselves and achieve spiritual advancement.
Moreover, this text was not only religiously
significant but also held socio-political importance.
In many East and Central Asian polities, the Sutra
of Golden Light was used in state rituals and royal
courts to invoke divine protection, ensure peace,
and affirm moral governance. Its presence in
Sogdian translation attests to the integration of
Buddhist ethics into the local Iranian-speaking
cultures and their interactions with Chinese and
Turkic religious traditions.
In conclusion, the Sutra of Golden Light
—
with its
emphasis on repentance, karmic law, and spiritual
renewal
—
played a central role in the religious life
of Sogdian Buddhists. Its transmission in Sogdian,
Chinese, and Old Turkic languages further
exemplifies the dynamic cultural and religious
exchanges that characterized the spiritual
landscape of medieval Central Asia.
The Sutra of Golden Light (Suvarṇaprabhasa Sūtra)
exerted a profound influence on the formation of
the cultural and spiritual worldview not only of the
Indian and Chinese civilizations, but also of the
peoples of Central and East Asia. Beyond its
translation into Sogdian, the sutra was rendered
into several other languages, including Uyghur,
Tibetan, Oirat, Mongolian, and others. Its message
resonated widely and was particularly revered
among the Turkic-speaking peoples, where it
gained elevated status as both a spiritual guide and
a moral-philosophical text.
From a historical and cultural standpoint, the Sutra
of Golden Light was composed in India, likely in the
early centuries of the Common Era, during the rise
of Mahayana Buddhism. In China, it made its first
appearance at the end of the 4th or the beginning
of the 5th century, translated by a Buddhist monk
named Dharmaananda. Scholars speculate that he
may have been of Turkic or Sogdian origin, and he
adopted the name in honor of Ananda, the
Buddha’s most beloved disciple according to
Buddhist tradition, who accompanied him during
his lifetime and was present at the first Buddhist
council after his enlightenment.
However, the most influential and widely accepted
Chinese version of the sutra was the one produced
by the renowned Buddhist monk and scholar
Xuanzang (Hsüan-tsang), who undertook an
extensive pilgrimage across Central Asia and the
Indian subcontinent during the 7th century in
search of sacred Buddhist scriptures. Xuanzang’s
translation, known for its accuracy and elegance,
became canonical in Chinese Buddhist literature
and contributed significantly to the spread of the
Mahayana tradition in East Asia.
Among the various translations of the Sutra of
Golden Light, the Uyghur version is regarded as
one of the most accomplished. It was produced
around the 8th century, during the time of the
Uyghur Khaganate, which flourished in what is
now the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of
modern-day China. Numerous fragments of this
Uyghur translation have been unearthed in the
Turfan region, particularly in the famed Mogao
Caves, also known as the "Caves of the Thousand
Buddhas." These manuscripts offer invaluable
insights into the adaptation of Buddhist texts
within Turkic cultural and linguistic environments.
The Oirat version of the Sutra of Golden Light
represents one of the most recent and syncretic
transformations of the text. It was translated in the
later period, likely under the influence of the
Lamaist (Tibetan Buddhist) tradition. This version
significantly reworked certain elements of the
sutra to align it with the theological and ritualistic
frameworks of Tibetan Buddhism, reflecting the
dynamic and adaptive nature of Buddhist scripture
across diverse regions and epochs.
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Thus, the Sutra of Golden Light serves not only as a
spiritual guide promoting purification from sin,
karma justification, and ethical conduct but also as
a
mirror
of
cultural
transmission
and
transformation. Its wide-ranging translations and
reinterpretations underscore its central role in the
religious and moral life of many Eurasian societies
across centuries, especially among Turkic,
Mongolic, and Sino-Tibetan peoples.
Now let us turn to the core doctrinal ideas
presented in the Sutra of Golden Light
(Suvarṇaprabhasa Sūtra), which played a
significant role in shaping the ethical, spiritual, and
even political landscape of Buddhist communities
throughout Central and East Asia.
1. The Primary Goal of the Sutra: Karmic
Purification
The central objective of the Sutra of Golden Light is
the establishment of a path toward karmic
purification. As is well known, karma
—
in
Buddhism,
Hinduism,
and
other
Eastern
religions
—
is the cumulative result of an
individual's actions and their consequences, which
determine the circumstances and character of
one’s rebirth or reincarnation. According to this
belief, one’s fate in the next life is directly shaped
by virtuous or unwholesome deeds performed
during the current existence.
However, the Sutra of Golden Light introduces an
important doctrinal innovation: it asserts that sins
can be absolved through sincere repentance and
devotion. Specifically, the recitation of the sutra,
the memorization of its passages, and its faithful
reading are all considered powerful acts of
atonement. To support this doctrine, the text
presents a wide array of narrative material
—
parables, fables, moral tales, and accounts of
historical events from the lives of Buddhist
monastic
communities
—
demonstrating
how
recitation and devotion have led to spiritual
liberation and divine favor.
2. The Magical Power of the Word
A notable emphasis in the Sutra of Golden Light is
placed on the mystical and transformative power
of speech. Merely uttering the name of the sutra is
believed to be a meritorious act. According to the
Buddhist understanding expressed in the text, the
power of sacred language is such that even a single
verbal repetition can bring immense blessings and
protection from misfortune. This reflects the
Mahayana belief in dharaṇī, or magical formulas,
and the salvific efficacy of oral transmission of
sacred texts. Such doctrines highlight the
performative and ritual dimension of Buddhist
practice in both lay and monastic settings.
3. Sin Is Not Eternal: The Path to Enlightenment
Is Open to All
A fundamental doctrinal message of the Sutra of
Golden Light is that sin is not a permanent
condition. Instead, it can be washed away through
virtuous conduct and spiritual discipline. The sutra
affirms that every individual, regardless of their
past misdeeds, possesses the potential for spiritual
liberation and the attainment of bodhi
—
enlightenment, or even Buddhahood. This
inclusive doctrine reflects the core Mahayana idea
that all sentient beings have the Buddha-nature
and can, through diligent effort, overcome
ignorance and suffering.
Thus, the sutra’s appeal lies in its moral optimism
and universalism. It promotes a vision of
Buddhism as a path of personal transformation in
which the striving for goodness, the rejection of
evil, and the cultivation of compassion and wisdom
are accessible to everyone.
4. Political Interpretation in Ancient China
In ancient China, the Sutra of Golden Light acquired
a unique and influential political interpretation.
Particularly during the Tang dynasty, it was
regarded as a text capable of safeguarding state
authority and ensuring the prosperity and stability
of the empire. Chinese emperors institutionalized
the practice of reciting the sutra within the
imperial palace, believing that it could ward off
calamities, foster harmony, and secure divine
protection for the realm.
The sutra thus served a dual function
—
as a
spiritual guide for personal salvation and as a
political tool for reinforcing legitimacy and divine
sanction for imperial rule. It exemplifies the
intricate relationship between religion and state in
East Asian political culture, where spiritual texts
often played a role in affirming the moral authority
of rulers.
The Uyghur Translation:
The Uyghur version of the Sutra of Golden Light
can be described as a refined and creative
adaptation of the original, rendered in a relatively
free manner into the Turkic
—
specifically, the
Uyghur
—
language. The linguistic richness of the
Turkic idiom allowed for a high degree of
accommodation of Sanskrit (referred to in Uyghur
as anatkak) concepts within the Turkic cultural
and linguistic matrix. In this regard, the Uyghur
language proved to be particularly effective in
conveying complex philosophical ideas and in
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offering a lexicon broad enough to absorb foreign
religious vocabulary. Some manuscript versions of
the sutra reveal a significant degree of creative
rewriting and a fusion of the transformed Buddhist
narrative with the epic storytelling traditions of
Turkic peoples, reflecting both doctrinal fidelity
and cultural localization.
The Chinese Translations:
The Chinese versions of the Sutra of Golden Light
are distinguished by their vivid imagery and
textual enrichment through the inclusion of
commentaries, allegorical tales, and didactic
expansions that reinforce the sutra’s core ideas.
Within Chinese monasteries, the sutra was treated
as a sacred text for public ritual. It held a
prominent role in liturgical recitations, especially
in court ceremonies and communal prayer
assemblies. The Chinese translators often sought
not only linguistic clarity but also theological
amplification, embedding the sutra into broader
moral, cosmological, and political narratives.
The Sogdian Translation:
The Sogdian version stands out for its
incorporation of local cultic elements and
influences drawn from Zoroastrian traditions. The
renowned Iranologist and Sogdologist W. B.
Henning, in his seminal article "The Sogdian
Buddhist Text ‘Sutra of Golden Light’", pointed to a
remarkable syncretism between Buddhism and
Zoroastrianism within the Sogdian fragments of
the sutra. These hybrid features reflect the
complex religious environment of Sogdiana, where
Buddhist cosmology was reinterpreted through
the
lens
of
indigenous
Iranian
beliefs,
demonstrating the dynamic interactions between
doctrinal content and local worldviews.
The Oirat Translation:
The Oirat translation of the Sutra of Golden Light is
marked by the significant imprint of the Lamaist
(Tibetan Buddhist) tradition. This version was not
merely a literal translation but a syncretic
rendering adapted to Lamaist rituals and
theological needs. It was used in ceremonies of
purification and played a role in elaborate
liturgical performances and sacred processions.
The adaptation aligned the su
tra’s message with
the ritual structure and spiritual aspirations of
Tibetan-style Buddhism among Mongolic peoples.
CONCLUSIONS
Thus, the Sutra of Golden Light emerged as a
crucial unifying thread linking the Buddhist
cultures of India, Central Asia, and China. It serves
as a vivid example of the integrative capacity of
religion, demonstrating how a sacred text can be
simultaneously preserved and transformed across
diverse linguistic, ethnic, and cultural frontiers.
The Silk Road played an instrumental role in
facilitating the diffusion, transformation, and
localization of Buddhist teachings, ensuring their
relevance within a variety of regional contexts.
In Place of a Conclusion:
The Sutra of Golden Light, along with other
Buddhist scriptures
—
including their Sogdian
versions
—
constituted a significant historical and
cultural phenomenon in their time. The adoption of
Buddhist ideas by various peoples helped elevate
Buddhism to the status of a world religion,
contributing to the development of intercultural
relations and the dynamic evolution of religious
thought across the Eurasian continent.
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