Frontline Social Sciences and History Journal
FRONTLINE JOURNALS
28
Study on the Reason why Radical Political Islam not Appear until the Late
Twentieth Century
Yin Zhengqing
Institute of African Studies, Zhejiang Normal University, China
A R T I C L E I N f
О
Article history:
Submission Date: 04 January 2025
Accepted Date: 06 February 2025
Published Date: 25 March 2025
VOLUME:
Vol.05 Issue03
Page No. 28-31
DOI: -
https://doi.org/10.37547/social-
A B S T R A C T
This essay examines the historical and socio-political catalysts behind the
rise of radical political Islam in the second half of the 20th century, tracing
its evolution from early Islamic thought to a global ideological force.
Rooted in 9th-century Hanbali traditions emphasizing scriptural fidelity,
Islamism transitioned from theological discourse to militant practice in the
modern era. Four interrelated factors drove this radicalization: First, the
collapse of the Ottoman Caliphate in 1924 dismantled a unifying Islamic
authority, sparking fragmented efforts to revive Islamic governance, which
later shifted toward radical movements. Second, intensified Western
colonial influence post-World War II
—
particularly the establishment of
Israel
—
exacerbated anti-Western sentiment, transforming geopolitical
and religious tensions into catalysts for extremism. Third, the dissolution
of alliances between Islamists and secular nationalists after decolonization
created internal strife, as seen in Egypt’s conflict between
the Muslim
Brotherhood and Nasser’s regime. Finally, technological advancements
enabled cross-regional mobilization (e.g., Afghan jihadists) and globalized
propaganda (e.g., digital dissemination of radical ideologies). The
convergence of these factors fac
ilitated radical Islamism’s ascendancy,
providing ideological and logistical frameworks for transnational
extremism. The essay concludes that while Islamist thought has deep
historical roots, its 20th-century radicalization emerged from specific
post-colonial realities, geopolitical conflicts, and technological innovations,
reshaping it into a pervasive global movement.
Keywords:
Political Islam; Islamism; Fundamentalism
INTRODUCTION
The theory of “respecting the Quran and restoring
the past” in modern Islamism can be traced back to
the 9th century when Ahmad Ibn Hanbal and his
Hanbali school emphasized the Quran and Hadith
as the source of divine revelation and strictly
restricted the use of analogies and public
discussion. In the 19th century, highly systematic
and theoretical Islamic thought began to emerge.
However, it was not until modern times that
Islamism gradually became radical and violent,
Frontline Social Sciences and History Journal
ISSN: 2752-7018
Frontline Social Sciences and History Journal
FRONTLINE JOURNALS
29
and further transformed from a simple religious
academic theory into practice in the second half of
the 20th century, becoming the guiding ideology of
radical fundamentalist political Islam around the
world and providing an ideological basis for
contemporary extreme Muslim terrorism.
This essay argues that the rise of radical political
Islam in the second half of the 20th century has
complex historical and social reasons. Firstly, in
the early modern period, the national salvation
movements of Muslim countries often revolved
around the theoretical highest leader, the Caliph
(Turkish sultan). It was not until the disintegration
of the Ottoman Empire after World War I and the
failure of the efforts of the Sharif of Mecca, the King
of Egypt, and others to revive the caliphate system
that the focus of the Pan-Islamist movement
shifted to a direct return to the fundamentalist
Muslim Ummah system. Secondly, Although
Western colonists began to invade the Muslim
world in the 19th century, it was not until the 20th
century that their political, religious, and cultural
influence deeply affected Muslim countries,
sparking an anti-colonial and anti-Western social
wave. In particular, the establishment of Israel
with the support of the West after World War II led
to the rise of radical anti-Western movements
within the Muslim world. Thirdly, In the first half
of the 20th century, Islamist movements often
allied with secular nationalism to fight against
Western colonizers. In the second half of the 20th
century, the conflict between secular governments
that successfully achieved national independence
and Islamism became the main contradiction in
Muslim society. Finally, technological advances
have made large-scale cross-regional Islamist
propaganda and even mobilization possible, which
has intensified the radicalism and influence of
political Islamic movements in the second half of
the 20th century.
The Collapse of the Caliphate System
The Sultan of the Ottoman Empire has been the
protector of the Two Holy Places since the Ottoman
Empire eliminated the Mamluks and conquered
Egypt in 1517. At the same time, the Sultan claimed
to have inherited the position of the Abbasid
Caliphate and regarded himself as the common
leader of Muslims, or at least the common leader of
Sunni Muslims, worldwide. The Sultan had used
the title of caliph to assert their right to protect
Muslims living under the rule of other countries,
such as Russia. In modern times, faced with
Western colonial invasion, some Muslims first
placed their hopes of resistance on the Ottoman
Caliphate. This Islamist advocacy that relies on the
existing national government is relatively mild
compared to contemporary radical Islamic
movements. For instance, Jamal al-Din al-Afghani,
a representative of early Islamism, went to
Istanbul and was appointed to the Ottoman
Council of Education in 1869. Al-Afghani hoped to
save the Muslim world from the Westerners by
participating
in
the
Ottoman
Empire's
modernization reform (the Tanzimat). Even in the
20th century, the Ottoman Caliphate could still
gain support from Muslims outside the empire.
After the defeat in World War I, the Ottoman
Empire faced the crisis of being dismembered by
the Allied Powers, and Indian Muslims launched
the anti-
British “Khilafat Movement” under the
slogan of defending the Caliphate. Before the
Turkish Republic government officially abolished
the Caliphate at the legal level in 1924, early
Islamic movements represented by the Khilafat
Movement had a wide influence and played a
certain role in defending the rights of Muslims in
India, Turkey, and other countries and resisting
Western colonial powers.
After the Ottoman Caliphate was deposed, some
Muslim monarchs also hoped to become caliphs
and take over the leadership of Muslims around
the world. For example, Husayn bin Ali, the Sharif
of Mecca, claimed to be the caliph in March 1924
based on his bloodline as a descendant of the
Prophet and his status as the ruler of the holy land
but was immediately defeated by Ibn Saud. Later,
King Fuad I of Egypt planned and convened the
1926 Pan-Islamic Congress in Cairo, trying to gain
the support of the entire Muslim world to make
himself the Caliph. The well-known Islamist
theorist Muhammad Rashid Rida was deeply
involved in the preparations for the Pan-Islamic
Congress. From the above examples, it can be seen
that many political Islamic movements in the first
half of the 20th century and before relied on the
existing Muslim rulers and ruling order, and were
more moderate than the radical Islamist
movements that started from scratch in the second
half of the 20th century.
1
Finkel, Caroline.
Osman's Dream: The History of the Ottoman Empire
. Hachette UK, 2007, p. 111.
Frontline Social Sciences and History Journal
FRONTLINE JOURNALS
30
The Deepening of Western Colonial Oppression
It was not until the late 19th century and even the
20th century that Western colonists penetrated
deep into the heartland of the Muslim world (such
as the interior of the African continent, the central
desert of the Arabian Peninsula, the deep
grasslands of Central Asia, etc.); on the other hand,
many Western colonists tended to cooperate with
local traditional Muslim nobles to indirectly rule
these colonies. Therefore, for the vast majority of
colonial people, the image of Western Christian
colonists was relatively vague compared to the
local rulers who exploited them every day. The
typical representative in this regard is the British
Empire. After destroying the Sokoto Caliphate, the
British colonial government delegated local
administration in northern Nigeria to local chiefs,
and British colonial officials usually only appeared
in front of local people as "advisors" to the chiefs;
In British India, until the eve of India's
independence, there were still 140 princely states
of varying sizes ruled by local nobles who managed
the local people on behalf of the Governor-General
of India. These local nobles who were dependent
on the Western colonists absorbed the first wave
of the anger of the locals, making the conflict
between the Muslim civilians and the Christian
Western colonists not so sharp and direct. In
addition, European colonists also formed many
Muslim vassal armies (The most famous of these
include the Tirailleurs Algériens in French Algeria,
the Askari in Italian Eritrea, and the Royal
Netherlands East Indies Army, which was mainly
composed of local indigenous Muslim soldiers,
etc.) and used Muslim soldiers to suppress Muslim
uprisings, which also weakened the direct hatred
of the lower-class Muslims towards the Christian
colonial government.
After World War II, the situation changed a lot.
With the advancement of communication and
propaganda, ordinary Muslims were able to learn
about the details of Western colonial rule through
newspapers, radio, and other means. What was
even more significant was that in 1948, Israel was
founded and immediately went to war with
neighboring Muslim countries. More direct
religious and ethnic conflicts promoted the further
radicalization of Islamist thinking. The long-
standing geopolitical, religious, and ethnic conflicts
such as the Palestinian-Israeli issue were not
resolved after World War II. This is a major reason
why radical political Islamic movements have
become more attractive in the Middle East.
The End of The Islamist-Secular Nationalist
Alliance
In the early and mid-twentieth century, Islamism
and secular nationalism shared the same anti-
colonial goal during this period. Facing the colonial
invasion of Western powers, secularists who
pursued national and state independence and
Islamists who called for the establishment of a
fundamentalist Islamic order stood in the same
trench. For example, due to their common goal of
resisting British colonial rule, the Muslim
Brotherhood, an Islamist organization in Egypt,
secretly allied with the secular Free Officers
Organization. In the revolution launched by the
Free Officers in 1952, the Muslim Brotherhood was
responsible for helping to manage the streets
before the coup soldiers completely controlled
Cairo; after the victory of the revolution, Hassan
al-Hudaybi, the supreme leader of the Muslim
Brotherhood, personally visited Mohamed Naguib,
the leader of the Free Officers, and the two sides
held consultations on further cooperation,
confirming
the
friendly
and
cooperative
relationship between the Muslim Brotherhood and
the new government.
Of course, this cooperation did not last long. After
the Western colonizers were driven away, the
contradiction between secularism and Islamism
emerged. In 1954, Egyptian President Nasser
launched a large-scale raid on the Muslim
Brotherhood and imprisoned thousands of Muslim
Brotherhood members. In such a fierce
confrontation, the Islamists' ideas of resisting the
secular government became more radical.
2
Mishra, Pankaj.
From the Ruins of Empire: The Revolt against the West and the Remaking of Asia
, Penguin Books. p. 70.
3
Khan, Shafique Ali. "The Khilafat Movement."
Journal of the Pakistan Historical Society
34, no. 1 (1986): 33.
4
Teitelbaum, Joshua.
The rise and fall of the Hashimite kingdom of Arabia
, New York University Press, 2001, p. 197.
5
Kirillina, Svetlana A., Alexandra L. Safronova, and Vladimir V. Orlov. "Caliphate in the Ideological dialogue of the Islamic World: The Case of
Pan Islamic Congress in Cairo (1926)."
RUDN Journal of World History
14, no. 1 (2022): 7-19.
Frontline Social Sciences and History Journal
FRONTLINE JOURNALS
31
The accelerating effect of scientific and
technological progress on the spread of ideas
Another reason why radical political Islamist
movement became more influential in the second
half of the twentieth century was technological
progress and globalization. In 1979, when the
Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan, with the help of
modern advanced transportation technology,
jihadists from all over the world quickly gathered
in the mountains of Central Asia to join the jihad
against the Russians. They honed their military
skills and Islamist ideas there and brought these
skills and ideas back to all around the world after
the war in Afghanistan ended. The
“best” among
them included Osama bin Laden from Saudi Arabia
and Ayman al-Zawahiri from Egypt.
The advancement of modern recording and
imaging technology has also made it possible for
radical political Islam to spread rapidly and widely.
Mohammed Qutb, the younger brother of Sayyid
Qutb, a well-known Islamist theorist of the Muslim
Brotherhood, is a university professor in Saudi
Arabia, spreading many of his and his brother's
Islamist ideas in the classroom. He recorded his
lectures on tapes and distributed them
everywhere, and after the rise of the Internet in the
late 1990s, he began to spread his lecture videos on
online
websites,
providing
sufficient
and
convenient theoretical ammunition for radical
Islamists around the world since the end of the
Cold War.
CONCLUSION
Although Islamist thought has deep historical
roots, it was not until the second half of the 20th
century that radical Islamism became the
mainstream thought in the political Islamic
movement and had the conditions to spread widely
around the world.
REFERENCE
Barbara H.E. Zollner, The Muslim Brotherhood:
Hasan al-Hudaybi and Ideology, Routledge, 2009,
p. 27.
Bhargava, Rajeshwar Prasad. The chamber of
princes. Northern Book Centre, 1991.
Calvert, John. Sayyid Qutb and the Origins of
Radical Islamism. Oxford University Press, USA,
2009.
Crowder, Michael. "Indirect rule
—
French and
British style." Africa 34, no. 3 (1964): 197-205.
Finkel, Caroline. Osman's Dream: The History of
the Ottoman Empire. Hachette UK, 2007.
Kepel, Gilles. Jihad: The trail of political Islam.
Harvard University Press, 2002, p.51.
Khan, Shafique Ali. "The Khilafat Movement."
Journal of the Pakistan Historical Society 34, no. 1
(1986): 33.
Kirillina, Svetlana A., Alexandra L. Safronova, and
Vladimir V. Orlov. "Caliphate in the Ideological
dialogue of the Islamic World: The Case of Pan-
Islamic Congress in Cairo (1926)." RUDN Journal of
World History 14, no. 1 (2022): 7-19.
Mishra, Pankaj. From the Ruins of Empire: The
Revolt against the West and the Remaking of Asia,
Penguin Books.
Olivier Carré and Gérard Michaud, Les Frères
Musulmans. Egypte et Syrie(1928-82), Paris:
Gallimard Julliard, 1983,
Teitelbaum, Joshua. The rise and fall of the
Hashimite kingdom of Arabia, New York University
Press, 2001.
6
Crowder, Michael. "Indirect rule—French and British style."
Africa
34, no. 3 (1964): 197-205.
7
Bhargava, Rajeshwar Prasad.
The chamber of princes
. Northern Book Centre, 1991, p. 313.
8
Calvert, John.
Sayyid Qutb and the Origins of Radical Islamism
. Oxford University Press, USA, 2009, p.181.
9
Barbara H.E. Zollner,
The Muslim Brotherhood: Hasan al-Hudaybi and Ideology
, Routledge, 2009, p.
27.
10
Olivier Carré and Gérard Michaud, Les Frères Musulmans. Egypte et Syrie(1928-82), Paris: Gallimard Julliard, 1983, p. 68.
11
Kepel, Gilles. Jihad: The trail of political Islam. Harvard University Press, 2002, p.51.
